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Given By
Forty -sixth Annual Report
of the
BUREAU OF AMERICAN
ETHNOLOGY
1928-1929
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
WASHINGTON
D. C.
FORTY- SIXTH
ANNUAL REPORT OF THE
BUREAU OF
AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
TO THE SECRETARY OF THE
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
1928-1929
UNITED STATES
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON : 1930
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For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington. D. C. - - - Price 31.90 (Paper cover)
U.S. SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUmMiS
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LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
Smithsonian Institution,
Bureau of American Ethnology,
Washington, D. C, Septemhcr 15, 1929.
Sm : I have the honor to submit herewith the Forty-sixth
Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology for
the fiscal year ended Jime 30, 1929.
With appreciation of your aid in the work under my
charge, I am
Very respectfully yours,
M. W. Stirling,
Chief.
Dr. C. G. Abbot,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
CONTENTS
REPORT OF THE CHIEF
Page
Systematic researches 1
Special researches 11
Editorial work and publications 13
lOustrations 14
Library 15_
Colleetions 15
Property 16
Miscellaneous 16
ACCOMPANYING PAPERS
Anthropological Survey in Alaska, by Ales Hrdlicka 19
Indian Tribes of the Upper Missouri, by Edwin T. Denig, edited by
J. N. B. Hewitt 375
V
REPORT OF THE CHIEF
FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT
OF THE
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
M. W. Stirling, Chief
The operations of the Bureau of American Ethnologj'
during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1929, were conducted
in accordance with the act of Congress approved May 16,
1928, making appropriations for simdry civil expenses of
the Government, which act contains the following item :
American ethnology : For continuinf;; ethnological researches among
the American Indians and the natives of Hawaii, the excavation and
preservation of archseologic remains under the direction of the
Smithsonian Institution, including necessary employees, the prepara-
tion of manuscripts, drawings, and illustrations, the purchase of
books and periodicals, and traveling expenses, $60,300.
Mr. M. W. Stirling entered upon his duties as chief of
the bureau August 1, 1928, succeeding Dr. J. Walter
Fewkes, who retired January 15, 1928. '
SYSTEMATIC RESEARCHES
During the months of September and October Mr. Stir-
ling worked with a group of Acoma Indians who were
visiting Washington and secured from them in as com-
plete form as possible the origin and migration myth of
that very conservative tribe. This myth not only de-
scribes the emergence of the first human beings from the
underworld but also explains the origin and functions
of the pantheon of demigods and heroes connected with
the legend. The myth likewise explains the origin and
function of the clans and the medicine societies and the
Z BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
reason for the many ceremonies practiced. In connec-
tion with this work phonograj^hic records were made of
66 songs, many of which have been transcribed by Miss
Frances Densmore, as described in her report. This in-
formation fills an important gap in onr knowledge of the
oldest inhabited pueblo in the United States.
Mr. Stirling spent the months of March and April in
Florida, where a survey was made of the mounds in the
vicinity of Tampa Bay. An interesting discovery was
made of a series of mounds composed of mixed sand and
shell, constructed at a distance of about 4 miles inland,
parallel to the shore, and in each instance directly back
of a large shell mound located on the salt water. Pre-
liminary excavations were made at Cockroach Point,
Palma Sola, and Safety Harbor. The shell mound at
Cockroach Point is the largest on the west coast of Florida
and is composed entirely of shell and bone, refuse from the
meals of the Indians who formerly occupied the site.
Collections of shells and bones were made in the different
levels of the mound, together with human artifacts asso-
ciated with them, with a view to establishing a culture
sequence.
The site at Safety Harbor was determined to be of the
same culture as that excavated at Weeden Island during
the winters of 1923 and 1924.
The large sand mound at Palma Sola proved to be of
exceptional interest and was selected as a site for intensive
excavation next winter.
During the latter part of April Mr. Stirling visited Chi-
cago for the purpose of delivering lectures before the Geo-
graphic Society of Chicago and the anthroiDologists of Chi-
cago and vicinity. From Chicago he went to Memphis,
Tenn., where he attended the meeting of the Tennessee
Academy of Sciences and addressed the society at their
annual banquet. Proceeding from Memphis to Macon,
Ga., he visited the large mounds on the site of Old Ocmul-
gee Town, traditional founding place of the Creek Con-
federacy.
ADMINISTRATH^E REPORT
During the third week in May Mr. Stirling attended the
conference of Mid- Western Archeologists, which was held
at St. Louis under the auspices of the National Research
Comicil, and as representative of this body went to Mont-
gomery, Ala., to deliver an address at the unveiling of a
nionvmient by the Alabama Anthropological Society on the
site of old Tukabatchi.
He also attended the meeting of the American Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Science in New York in
December, 1928, as representative of the United States
Government.
Dr. John R. S wanton, ethnologist, was engaged during
the year in completing the proof reading of his bulletin on
the Myths and Tales of the Southeast, which has been re-
leased for publication.
Considerable material was added to his manuscript pa-
per entitled " Source Material for Choctaw Ethnology.'*
Part of this was collected from the archives of the State
Department of Archives and History at Jackson, Miss.,
and some from the eastern Choctaw at Philadeli^hia, Miss.,
in July, 1928. Also, a great deal more work was devoted
to the projected tribal map of aboriginal North America
north of Mexico and to the accomi^anying text, including
the incorporation df some valuable notes furnished by Mr.
Diamond Jenness, chief of the division of anthropology
of the Geological Survey of Canada,
Work was continued throughout the year on the Timu-
eua dictionary which, in spite of the elimination of a large
number of cards on account of closer classification and the
correction of errors, still fills 14 trays.
Shortly after July, 1928, Dr. Trmnan Michelson, eth-
nologist, left Washington to renew his research among the
Algonquian tribes of Oklahoma. He first studied the
linguistics, sociology, and physical anthropology of the
Kickapoo. Kickapoo in certain respects is very impor-
tant linguistically. While working on Arapaho he was
able to formulate many phonetic shifts of complexity.
Even so, the amount of vocabulary that can be proved to
4 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
be Algonquian is very small. The grammatical structure
is, however, fundamentally Algonquian. It is also true
that there are a few traits which are distinctly un- Algon-
quian ; for example, the order of words.
The first week in August Doctor Miehelson went to
Tama, Iowa, to renew his work among the Foxes. He
there restored phonetically some texts previously obtained
in the current syllabic script and worked out some transla-
tions. He also obtained some grammatical notes on these
texts. Some new Fox syllabic texts were collected and
new and important ethnological data were obtained.
Doctor Miehelson returned to Washington in Septem-
ber. He corrected proofs of Bulletin 89, Observations on
the Thunder Dance of the Bear Gens of the Fox Indians,
and prepared for publication by the bureau a memoir
entitled " Notes on the Great Sacred Pack of the Thunder
Gens of the Fox Indians. ' ' Early in June Doctor Michel-
son left for Oklahoma, where he obtained more Kickapoo
linguistic notes, further elucidating the relation of Kicka-
poo to Fox. From this it appears that Kickapoo diverges
more widely in idiom than hithereto suspected. He also
secured some Kickapoo texts in the current syllabic script
and obtained new data on social organization. Some brief
Shawnee linguistic notes were collected. These show that
while Shawnee is in certain respects very important for
a correct understanding of Fox phonology, as a whole it
is not as archaic. It is also now clear that Shawnee is
further removed from Sauk and Kickapoo than he had
previously surmised. Doctor Miehelson witnessed several
Kickapoo dances and attended a Shawnee ball game.
In June, 1929, Mr. John P. Harrington, ethnologist,
completed his report on the Taos Indians, who inhabit
a large pueblo on an eastern affluent of the Rio Grande
in north-central New Mexico. These are the northernmost
of the New Mexico Pueblo Indians and are peculiarly in-
teresting because of the long intimate relations they have
had with the Jicarilla Apaches, Utes, Comanches, and
other tribes of Great Plains culture. During the period
ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT
of Spanish domination in New Mexico the Taos had to
play the double and difficult role, because of their frontier
position, of persuading the Spanish that they were really
on their side, and the Plains Indians that they were really
on theirs. The relations with the Plains Indians existed
far back in Taos history and amounted at times to the
incorporation of large bodies of these Indians in the blood
which went to make up the present-day Taos. And there
is still more remote and fundamental connection with one
group of Plains Indians, namely the Kiowa. The Taos
language, which was the language of one of the ancient
groups which contributed to the composition of Taos, has
been determined to be a dialect of Kiowa, which seems
to indicate that this contingent of the Taos population at
least, like the Kiowas themselves, once lived in the north-
ern region of the Rocky Momitains, probably in what is
now Canada.
Grasping still another opportunity to check the old and
new information on this region, studies on the related
Karuk Indians of the central Klamath River region of
California were resumed during field work on the coast
and were continued throughout the year, resulting in an
accumulation of carefully analyzed material, a large part
of which is now ready for publication. The work consists
of many divisions of information, including the grammar
of the language, its sounds, its peculiar musical intona-
tions, and the system of long and short consonants and
vowels ; the history of the tribe, which remained intact and
unspoiled up to 1850; the census, with the peculiar old
personal names ; the villages, which were strung out along
the river and its tributary creeks ; the construction of the
living houses and sweat houses, and the description of all
the manufacti;res, and the process of making the objects,
all in Indian; the social life, an organization without
chiefs ; the great festivals and the various dances ; feuds,
Avars, and peace making ; sucking and herb doctors, and the
sources of their power ; medicine formulas and myths, all
in the language, for any other record of them would be
6 BTJEEAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
inadequate. This information is accompanied by photo-
graphs and phonograph records and is rapidly appi'oach-
ing completion for publication as a report of the bureau.
Early in June Mr. Harrington went to Chaco Canyon,
N. Mex., for the purpose of making further study of the
Pueblo Indian languages, notably the relation of Zuhi and
Keresan to the newly discovered Kiowan family. Coop-
erating with students at the University of New Mexico
attending the university summer school being held at
Chaco Canyon under the joint auspices of the State Uni-
versity and the School of American Research, a minute
comparison was made of the Taos and Zuiii languages, re-
sulting in the discovery of the genetic relationship of these
two languages, a relationship which can be traced through
himdreds of words of similar sound and identical con-
struction, which was long ago hinted at by the discovery
of such words as lana, big, and papa, older brother, which
are the same in sound and meaning in both languages.
About 200 kymograph tracings were made. Similar gen-
etically related words and features were also discovered in
the Keresan language. Cooperating in this work were
Miss Sara Godard, Miss Clara Leibold, Miss Anna Ris-
ser, Miss Janet Tietjens, Miss Winifred Stamm, Mr. Regi-
nald Fisher, and several other students. The results are
ready for publication, including the kymographic alpha-
bet, which is mounted and ready for the engraver.
The months of July and August, 1928, were spent by
Dr. F. H. H. Roberts, jr., archeologist, in completing
archeological investigations along the Piedra River in
southwestern Colorado. During that time the remains of
50 houses belonging to the first period of the prehistoric
Pueblo peoples were excavated and examined. As a re-
sidt of these researches it was possible to determine a
three-stage chronological development of the house types
in the district as well as to postulate very definite recon-
structions of the dwellings. An additional discovery was
that in the arrangement of the structures the builders had
developed the prototype of the unit house which was the
ADMINISTRATR'E REPORT 7
characteristic building of the following stage, the Pueblo
II period. Besides the work in house remains, a nimiber
of burial mounds were explored and many skeletons and
objects of the material culture of the people were obtained.
The latter include a large number and variety of pottery
specimens, many of which represent an entirely new fea-
ture in the ceramic industry, bone and stone implements,
and ornaments. The work as a whole gives a clear-cut
picture of the life and conditions prevailing at a time of
instal:>ility and disturbance due to an influx of new
peoples, with its attendant cultural transition.
On the completion of the work along the Piedra River
one week was spent in a reconnaissance of the Governador
district in northern New Mexico. The Governador region
includes the Governador, Burns, La Jara, and Frances
Canyons. The latter are of special archeological and
ethnological interest, because it was to that section that
a large group of the Pueblo Indians from the Jemez vil-
lages fled after they had been disastrously defeated in the
Battle of San Diego Canyon during the month of June,
1696, by Spanish forces engaged in the reconquest of the
Southwest. The ruins of the dwellings built by the
refugees are in a good state of preservation and furnish
excellent information on the methods and styles of house
building prevalent at that time. At the close of the Gov-
ernador explorations Doctor Roberts returned to Wash-
ington, reaching there the middle of September.
During the autunm illustrations were prepared to ac-
company a manuscript entitled "Recent Archeological
Developments in the Vicinity of El Paso, Tex.," which
was published in January, 1929, as volume 81, No. 7,
of the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. Proof of
another paper entitled "Shabik'eshehee Village, a Late
Basket Maker Site in the Chaco Canyon, New Mexico,"
was corrected, and this appeared in June, 1929, as Bulle-
tin 92 of the Bureau of American Ethnology.
Considerable time was spent in the laboratory of the
division of American archeology of the United States Na-
8 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
tional Museum in working over the collection made during
the excavations along the Piedra River. A portion of
this work included the restoration, from fragments found
in the various houses, of a number of unusually fine culi-
nary and storage jars and a series of decorated bowls.
From January to Jime a 545-page manuscript on the
work in southwestern Colorado was prepared. Accom-
panying this report are 40 text figures drawn by Doctor
Roberts. The figures include 64 drawings, consisting of
maps of the San Juan areheological area and the Piedra
district, outlines of the various village and house groups,
restorations of the different forms of dwellings, details in
building construction, outline groups of pottery forms,
and designs from decorated ceramic containers.
On May 11, 1929, Doctor Roberts left Washington for
Denver, Colo., where one week was spent in studying
museum specimens. From Denver he proceeded to Gal-
lup, N. Mex., where he outfitted for work in the region of
the Long H Ranch, eastern Arizona, 45 miles from the
Pueblo of Zuiii. After conducting a reconnaissance a site
was chosen on the Long H Ranch, 1 mile northwest of the
ranch buildings, and a series of excavations started. As
work progressed it was found that the site was one which
had been occupied by Basket Maker III and Pueblo I peo-
ples and that it showed the transition from the one period
to the other. At the end of June, eight fine examples of
pit houses had been uncovered. Excellent data on the
type and character of this form of structure were obtained
and several new features in the method of house group-
ings were observed. The burial mounds of three house
clusters were examined and 30 interments exhumed. The
latter were accompanied by mortuary offerings of pottery ;
bone and shell implements; shell beads, bracelets, and
pendants; and turquoise ornaments. With the various
objects found in the houses the total number of specimens
reaches 300. The work has furnished valuable informa-
tion on a little-known phase of the prehistoric sedentary
cultures of the Southwest.
ADMINISTBATIVE EEPOKT 9
During the year Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt, ethnologist, con-
tinued his studies on the Iroquois. In 1900 and immedi-
ately subsequent years Mr. Hewitt undertook seriously to
record in native texts the extant rituals, ordinances, and
laws pertaining to the institutions and structure of the
League or Confederation of the Five (later Six) Tribes
or Nations of the Iroquois of New York State. At that
time there were still living two or three men among the
Iroquois of Canada who grasped more or less fully the
intent and purpose of the various institutions of this
league, and Mr. Hewitt had then acquired a conversational
knowledge of the two languages in which these rituals, or-
dinances, and laws were chiefly expressed, to wit, the
Mohawk and the Onondaga. The use of the Cayuga,
Oneida, and Seneca was exceptional.
From these men Mr. Hewitt obtained standard texts
in the native tongues of the informants. The death of
two of these informants made a study of the material
furnished by them difficult. Resort was had then to other
less noted informants in these matters, and there was ob-
tained a large number of versions of portions of the stand-
ard texts already mentioned, which disclosed views and
statements which it seemed impossible to harmonize with
those appearing in the standard texts. It was imperative
that the value of these discordant statements should be
ascertained where possible and that paljDable omissions
from the standard texts should be utilized. The task was
to ascertain in these analytical studies what was trans-
mitted tradition and what was the personal opinion of
the informant, unwittingly expressed.
This work of comparison was undertaken to secure the
best possible translations, interlinear and free, of the sev-
eral native texts thus studied. The texts of the Installa-
tion Chant, the Eulogy of the Founders, of the Traditional
Biography of Deganawida which describes in great detail
the years of difficult work which had to be done to estab-
lish the League of the Five Tribes of the Iroquois in the
Stone Age of America, and also the native text of the
SS253°— 30 — 2
10 BUEEAU OF AMEEICAN ETHNOLOGY
Requickening Address of Installation, were subjected to
this kind of study.
Mr. Hewitt represented the Smithsonian Institution on
the United States Geographic Board. In addition to at-
tending the meetings, he spent about three days in
researches for the executive committee.
As custodian of manuscripts of the bureau, Mr. Hewitt
did some classificatory linguistic work on new items
acquired.
Mr. Hewitt left Washington on May 6, 1929, to con-
tinue his studies among the Iroquoian tribes dwelling
in Canada and in the State of New York. His work con-
sisted chiefly in literal and free translation of formal
native diction embodying legislative, ritualistic, and fo-
rensic thought ; and, also in the coordination of divergent
traditional statements of traditionally hstorical events, in
eliminating the incongruous, and in conserving the congru-
ous. He secured 15 parcels of wampum strings, severally
bearing the name of one of the ))urdens of the ritual, the
Requickening Address of Installation.
Dr. Francis La Flesche, ethnologist, during the last
fiscal year completed Wa-sha'-be A-thi", an Osage war
ceremony, composed of 270 pages of manuscript, with
diagrams and illustrations; also the Wa'wa-tho", a cere-
mony pertaining to the peace pipes, composed of 129 pages
of manuscrijit, with illustrations. In this paper is a full
and detailed description of the discoidal pipes, ancient and
modern, found in the Eastern States, many of which may
be foimd in the various museums.
With the assistance of Mrs. Grace D. Woodburn, he has
revised the work on the Osage Dictionary. There are
approximately 19,000 words of the Osage language in com-
mon use among the tribe, with English equivalent; about
17,000 English words with Osage transcriptions are given.
The words, with their meanings, can not be given posi-
tively, but a clear idea of usage has been given. About 35
illustrations have been completed for this work.
ADMINISTRATIVE REPOET 11
SPECIAL EESEAECHES
The study of Indian music lias been continued during
the past year by Miss Frances Densmore, a collaborator
of the bureau. Material has been submitted on the songs
of the Menominee, Winnebago, Pawnee, Ymna, Acoma,
and the Indians living on the Eraser, Thompson, and
Squamish Rivers in British Columbia; also on a small
group of songs recorded at Anvik, Alaska, and obtained
through the courtesy of Rev. John W. Chapman. A com-
parison of the songs in this wide territory has been im-
portant in the develojoment of the research.
Eight manuscripts have been submitted with the follow-
ing titles: "Menominee Songs of Pleasure, Dances, and
Manabus Legends"; "Songs of Indians Living on the
Fraser, Thompson, and Squamish Rivers in British Co-
lumbia"; "Origin Song of the Dice Game and Other Win-
nebago Songs"; "Winnebago Songs Connected with the
Recent War ' ' ; and 17 analytical tables comparing Pawnee
with songs previously analyzed; "Winnebago Songs Con-
nected with Legends, Games, and Dances" ; "Acoma Songs
of the Flower Dance and Corn Dance"; "Acoma Songs
Used in Treating the Sick and Other Acoma Songs" ; and
"A Comparison Between Yuma, Acoma, and Alaskan In-
dian Songs," with 18 tables of analysis of Yuma songs.
The number of songs transcribed and analyzed is 117, and
a large nimiber of dictaphone song records were stvidied
without transcription. Miss Densmore corrected the
proof of her book on Papago Music and the galleys of
Pawnee Music; the tinal work of preparing the Pawnee
material for publication was also done during this year.
A large amount of work was done upon the preparation of
Menominee and Yuma material for publication. Cata-
logue numbers have been assigned to all transcribed songs,
except the Acoma, the highest catalogue number in her
series being 1848.
During August and September, 1928, a field trip was
made to the Winnebago and Menominee tribes in Wis-
consin. A large dance, continuing three days, was held
12 BUKEATJ OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
by the Winnebago near Black River Falls. This dance
was witnessed, as well as numerous incidents of life in the
camp, and about 50 photographs were taken.
At the conclusion of this gathering Miss Densmore went
to Keshena, Wis., for further work among the Menominee.
The manuscript already prepared was read to reliable
members of the tribe and details were added. An inter-
esting oportunity for seeing Menominee dances was af-
forded by the annual Indian fair which continued four
days. Among the old dances presented were those in
imitation of the fish, frog, crawfish, rabbit, partridge, and
owl. The songs of these dances, together with their ac-
tion and origin, were recorded. The Manabus legend con-
cerning the first death was obtained, together with its
songs, and the work included the recording of other old
material.
A drum-presentation ceremonial dance, commonly
called a dream dance, was held at the native village of
Zoar on September 2 to 5. This was attended each day
and closely observed. Miss Densmore remaining 10 hours
beside the dance circle on the third day of the ceremony.
Many photographs were taken.
On September 14 Miss Densmore proceeded to Tomah,
Wis., and resumed her study of Winnebago music. Addi-
tional songs of the war-bundle feast, also called the winter
feast, were recorded, together with several old legends and
their songs, and the origin of the bowl-and-dice game, with
its song. The legend of this game origin had previously
been obtained among the Menominee. Numerous photo-
graphs were taken, and two drumming sticks were ob-
tained, one being decorated with otter fur and used a
generation ago by the leader at the drum.
During October, 1928, Miss Densmore went to Wash-
ington, D. C, and recorded 27 Acoma songs from Philip
Sanche, who, with several Acoma Indians, was engaged
in work for the chief of the Bureau of American Ethnol-
ogy. A larger niunber of Acoma songs had previously
been recorded for the chief of the bureau and these records
ADMIlSriSTRATIVE REPORT 13
were studied, 16 being transcribed as representative
examples.
EDITORIAL WOEK AND PUBLICATIONS
The editing of the publications of the bureau was con-
tinued through the year by Mr. Stanley Searles, editor,
assisted by Mrs. Frances S. Mchols, editorial assistant.
The status of the publications is presented in the following
summary.
PUBLICATIONS ISSUED
Forty-first Annual Eeport. Accompanying papers : Coiled Basketry
in British Columbia and Surrounding Region (Boas, assisted by
Haeberlin, Teit, and Roberts) ; Two Prehistoric Villages in Middle
Tennessee (Myer). 626 pp., T37 pis., 200 figs., 1 pocket map.
Forty-third Annual Report. Accompanying papers: The Osage
Tribe: Two Versions of the Child-naming Rite (La Flesche) ;
Wawenock Myth Texts from Maine (Speck) ; Native Tribes and
Dialects of Connecticut, a Mohegan-Pequot Diary (Speck) ;
Picun's Children's Stories (Harrington and Roberts) ; Iroquoian
Cosmology — Second Part (Hewitt). 828 pp., 44 pis., 9 figs.
Forty-fourth Annual Report. Accompanying papers: Exploration
of the Burton Mound at Santa Barbara, Calif. (Harrington) ;
Social and Religious Beliefs and Usages of the Chickasaw Indians
(Swanton) ; LTses of Plants by the Chippewa Indians (Densmore) ;
Archeological Investigations — II (Fowke). 555 pp., 98 pis., 16
figs-
Bulletin 84. Vocabulary of the Kiowa Language (Harrington).
255 pp., 1 fig.
Bulletin 86. Chippewa Customs (Densmore). 204 pp., 90 pis., 27
figs.
Bulletin 87. Notes on the Buffalo-head Dance of the Thunder Gens
of the Fox Indians (Michelson). 94 pp., 1 fig.
Bulletin 89. Observations on the Thunder Dance of the Bear Gens
of the Fox Indians (Michelson). 73 pp., 1 fig.
Bulletin 92. Shabik'eshchee Village: A Late Basket Maker Site
in the Chaco Canyon, New Mexico (Roberts). 164 pp., 31 pis.,
32 figs.
PUBLICATIONS IN PRESS
Forty-fifth Annual Report. Accompanying papers: The Salishan
Tribes of the Western Plateaus (Teit, edited by Boas) ; Tattooing
and Face and Body Painting of the Thompson Indians, British
Columbia (Teit, edited by Boas) ; The Ethnobotany of the Thomp-
son Indians of British Columbia (Teit, edited by Steedman) ;
The Osage Tribe: Rite of the Wa-xo'-be (La Flesche).
14 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
Bulletin 88. Myths and Tales of the Southeastern Indians (Swan-
ton).
Bulletin 90. Papajro Music (Densmore).
Bulletin 91. Additional Studies of the Arts, Crafts, and Customs
of the Guiana Indians, with special reference to those of Souih-
eastern British Guiana (Roth).
Bulletin 93. Pawnee Music (Densmore).
DISTRIBUTION OF PUBLICATIONS
The distribution of the publications of the bureau has
been continued under the charge of Miss- Helen Munroe,
assisted by Miss Emma B. Powers. Publications were
distributed as follows :
Report volumes and separates _* 7,605
Bulletins and separates 11,890
Contributions to North American Ethnology 34
Miscellaneous publications 583
Total 20, 112
This is an increase of 10,986 iiublieations distributed,
due to the fact that 5 more publications were distributed
to the mailing list than in the previous year. The mail-
ing list, after revision during the year, stands at 1,642.
ILLUSTRATIONS
Following is a summary of work accomplished in the
illustration branch of the bureau under the supervision
of Mr. De Lancey Gill, illustrator :
Photographs retouched and lettered and drawings made ready
for engraving 874
Drawings prepared, including mafis, diagrams, etc 53
Engravers' pi'oofs criticized 690
Printed editions of colored jjlates examined at Government
Printing Office — 23,000
Correspondence attended to 125
Photographic laboratory work by Dr. A. J. Olmsted, Na-
tional Museum, in cooperation with the Bureau of Ameri-
can Ethnology :
Negatives 143
Prints 275
Films developed from field exposures 12
ADMINISTRATR'E EEPOET 15
LIBRARY
The reference library has continued under the care of
Miss Ella Leary, librarian, assisted by Mr. Thomas Black-
well. The library consists of 28,512 volumes, about 16,377
pamphlets, and several thousand unbound periodicals.
During the year 591 books were accessioned, of which 112
were acquired by purchase and 479 by gift and exchange ;
also 200 pamphlets and 4,100 serials, chiefly the publica-
tions of learned societies, were received and recorded, of
which oidy 112 were obtained by purchase, the remainder
being received through exchange. The catalogue was in-
creased by the addition of 1,400 cards. Many books were
loaned to other libraries in Washington. In addition to
the constant drafts on the library of the bureau, requisi-
tion was made on the Library of Congress during the year
for an aggregate of 200 volumes for official use, and in turn
the bureau library was frequently consulted by officers of
other Government establishments, as well as by students
not connected with the Smithsonian Institution.
While many volumes are still without binding, the con-
dition of the library in this respect has greatly improved
during the last few years ; 431 volumes were bound during
the year.
COLLECTIONS
100,592. Several thousand anthropological specimens and small col-
lections of mammals, plants, moUusks, and minerals from various
localities in Alaska, secured by Henry B. Collins, jr., during 1928.
(3,730 specimens.)
102.768. Small collection of archeological objects gathered by Charles
T. Earle at an aboriginal camp site at Shaws Point, Fla. (26
specimens.)
102.769. Two textile fragments collected in the Canyon de Chelly,
Ariz., by Dr. W. H. Spinks. (2 specimens.)
102,896. Collection of 61 ethnological specimens secured from the
Hupa Indians of California by E. G. Johnson. (61 specimens.)
103,344. Two specimens of sheet mica collected from unidentified
mounds in Ohio by the late Dr. E. H. Davis and presented to the
bureau by Miss Betsey B. Davis. (2 specimens,)
16 ' BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
103,964. Pair of charms used by the Karuk Indians of northern Cali-
fornia to ward off pains and bewitchments. Made by Mrs. Phoebe
Maddux, of the Karuk tribe. (2 specimens.)
105,865. Collection of ethnological objects gathered from the Hupa
Indians of California by E. G. Johnson and purchased from him
by the bureau. (27 specimens.)
PROPERTY
Oflfice equipment was purchased to the amount of
$292.70.
MISCELLANEOUS
The correspondence and other clerical work of the office
has been conducted by Miss May S. Clark, clerk to the
chief, assisted by Mr. Anthony W. Wilding, assistant clerk.
Miss Mae W. Tucker, stenographer, assisted Dr. John R.
Swanton in his work of compiling a dictionary of the Ata-
kapa and compiled two catalogues of the manuscripts in
the archives of the bureau — one arranged according to
author and the other numerically. Mrs. Frances S.
Nichols assisted the editor.
During the course of the year information was furnished
by members of the staff in reply to numerous inquiries
concerning the North American Indian peoples, both past
and present, and the Mexican peoples of the prehistoric
and early historic periods to the south. Various speci-
mens sent to the bureau were identified and data on them
furnished for their owners.
Personnel. — Mr. M. W. Stirling was appointed chief of
the bureau August 1, 1928. Dr, J. Walter Fewkes retired
as associate anthropologist of the bureau November 14,
1928.
Respectfully submitted.
M. W. Stirling, Chief.
Dr. C. G. Abbot,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
ACCOMPANYING PAPERS
17
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA
By ALES HRDLICKA
19
CONTENTS
Page
Introduction 29
General remarks 31
Northwest coast — Juneau 32
The Coast Indians 32
Notes of archeological interest 33
The writer's trip on the Yukon 39
Tanana — Yukon 39
Ancient man 41
The Indians at Tanana 42
Ruby 48
Galena 51
Nulato 53
Kaltag 54
The Anvik jjeople 57
Bonasila 60
Holy Cross 61
Ghost Creek 62
Paimute 66
Russian Mission 70
MarshaU 72
St. Michael 84
About Nome 88
Aboriginal remains 89
Nome — Bering Strait — Barrow 90
Savonga 92
The Diomedes 94
The Yukon Territory — Sites, the Indians, the Eskimo 123
The Tanana 123
Brief historical data 123
Population 124
Indian sites and villages along the Tanana 125
Lower Tanana, Nenana to Yukon 126
The Yukon below Tanana 126
Brief history 126
The Yukon natives 129
Native villages 131
Present conditions 133
Archeology of the Yukon 134
The random specimens 134
Location of villages and sites on the Yukon 136
Pre-Russian sites 140
Archeology of Central Alaska 144
Ancient stone culture 144
The pottery 146
The yUaskan grooved stone ax 147
21
22 CONTENTS
Page
Anthropology of the Yukon 150
The living Indian 150
Pure bloods 150
General type 151
Color 151
Stature and strength 151
Head form 151
Body 151
Photographs 151
Skeletal remains of the Yukon 151
Detailed measurements of skuUs 152
Lower middle Yukon Indian crania 153
Skeletal parts 156
Skeletal remains from the bank at Bonasila 156
The crania 157
Additional parts 159
The Yukon Eskimo 161
The living 161
Measurements on living Yukon Eskimo 162
Skeletal remains of Yukon Eskimo 162
Skeletal parts of the Yukon Eskimo 163
Notes on the archeology of the Western Eskimo region 165
Old sites in the region of the Western Eskimo 168
Present location of archeologieal sites 171
Sites and villages 176
Burial grounds 183
Prince WiUiam Sound, Kodiak Island, Alaska Peninsula 184
Kodiak Island and neighborhood 184
Alaska Peninsula 186
Bristol Bay to Cape Romanzof 190
Cape Romanzof to Northern (Apoon) Pass of the Yukon and north-
ward 195
St. Michael Island 195
Norton Sound 195
South shore of Seward Peninsula west of Bluff 196
Scammon Bay, Norton Sound, south coast of Seward Peninsula, to
Cape Rodney 198
The northern shore of the Seward Peninsula 202
Kotzebue Sound, its rivers and its coast northward to Kevalina 204
Seward Peninsula, Kotzebue Sound, and northward 204
Kevalina — Point Barrow 205
Point Hope (Tigara) 205
Point Hope to Point Barrow 206
Barrow and Point Barrow 206
The St. Lawrence and Diomede Islands 209
St. Lawrence Island 209
The Diomede Islands and the Asiatic coast 210
Physical anthropology 213
Earlier data 213
Older anthropometric data on the western Eskimo 228
Stature and other measurements on the living 228
TheskuU 231
CONTENTS 23
Physical anthropology — Continued. Page
Present data on the western Eskimo 238
The living 238
Measurements of Uving western Esliimo 238
Stature 238
Height sitting , 239
Arm span 239
The head 239
The forehead 240
The face 241
Lower facial breadth 242
The nose 242
The mouth 243
The ears 243
The chest 244
The hand •_ 245
The foot 246
Girth of the calf 246
Physiological observations 247
Summary of observations on the living western Eskimo 249
Remarks 250
Present data on the skull and other skeletal remains of the western
Eskimo 254
The skull 254
Skull size 255
Module and capacity 258
Additional remarks on cranial module 258
SkuU shape 258
Height of the skuU 261
The face 263
The nose 267
The orbits 270
The upper alveolar arch 275
The basion-nasion diameter 277
Prognathism 282
Skulls of Eskimo children 294
Crania of Eskimo children 295
Southwestern and midwestern Eskimo 295
Principal cranial indices in children compared with those in
adults 297
The lower jaw 299
Strength of the jaw 301
Breadth of the rami 303
Other dimensions 303
The angle 305
Rfeumg 306
Mandibular hyperostoses 306
Main references 310
Skeletal parts other than the skull 313
The long bones 314
Comparative data 315
Long bones in Eskimo and stature 316
Length of principal long bones, and stature in the living, on the St.
Lawrence Island 317
Long bones vs. stature in Eskimo of Smith Sound 317
24 CONTENTS
Page
A strange group of Eskimo near Point Barrow 318
Anthropological observations and measurements on the collections-- 321
Physical characteristics 323
Origin and antiquity of the Eskimo 329
Origin of the name ' ' Eskimo " 329
Opinions by former and living students 330
Origin in Asia 330
Origin in America 330
Origin in Europe — Identity with Upper Palaeolithic man 331
Other hypotheses 332
Theories as to the origin of the Eskimo 333
Asiatics 333
American 340
European 347
Opposed to European 351
Miscellaneous and indefinite - 351
Discussion and conclusions indicated by present data 355
Summary 361
Bibliography 367
Index. 629
ILLUSTRATIONS
PLATES
Page
1. a. "Old Minto" on the Tanana. Indian village. (A. H., 1926.)
6, Present Nulato and its cemetery (on hill to the right of the
village) from some distance up the river. (A. H., 1926.) c, The
Greyling River site, right bank, 22 miles above Anvik; site and
graveyard (male skeleton) from top of knoll. (A. H., 1926.) 54
2. o, View on the Yukon from above Kaltag. (A. H., 1926.) b, Indian
burial ground, middle Yukon. (A.H., 1926.) c, Anvik, from the
mission. (A. H., 1926.) 54
3. o. Midnight on the Yukon. 6, Lower middle Yukon: painted burial
box of a Yukon Indian (before 1884) said to have been a hunter of
bielugas (white whales), wliich used to ascend far up the Yukon 64
4. o, Eskimo camp below Paimute, Yukon River. 6, Old "protolithie"
site 12 miles down from Paimute, right bank, just beyond " 12-mile
hill" (skuU, bones, stones), c, "Old" site in bank seen in middle of
picture, 12 miles down from Paimute, opposite that shown in pre-
ceding figure. (A. H., 1926.) 64
5. a, Cape Prince of Wales from the southeast. (A. H., 1926.) 6, Vil-
lage and cemetery slope. Little Diomede. (A. H., 1926.) 96
6. a, Asiatics departing for Siberia from the Little Diomede Island.
(Photo by D. Jenness, 1926.) 6, c, "Chukchis" loading their boat
with goods on Little Diomede Island, before departure for Siberia.
(Photos by D. Jenness, 1926.) 96
7. a, Eskimos from East Cape arriving at Nome, Alaska. 6, East Cape
of Asia (to the southward). (Photo from Joe Bernard.) 96
8. A group of women at Sliishmaref. (Taken at 2 a. m. by A. H., 1926.).. 96
9. a, My "spoils," loaded on sled, Point Hope. (A. H., 1926.) 6, The
load is heavy and sledding over sand and gravel difficult. (A. H.,
1926.) \ 136
10. Characteristic stone axes, middle Yukon. (A. H. coll., 1926.) 136
11. Crude stone artifacts, found at Bonasila, lower middle Yukon. (A.
E. coU., 1926.) 136
12. Crude stone artifacts, found at Bonasila, lower middle Yukon. (A.
H. coll., 1926.) 136
13. Tanana Indian woman 150
14. Chief Sam Joseph, near Tanana village, on the Yukon. (A. H.,
1926.) 150
15. a, Yukon Indians, at Kokrines, Jacob and Andrew. Jacob probably
has a trace of white blood. (A. H. 1926.) 6, Yukon Indians at
Kokrines. (A. H., 1926.) 150
16. Yukon Indians, a, Marguerite Johnny Yatlen, Koyukuk vOlage.
(A. H., 1926.) 6, Lucy John, Koyukuk, daughter of a former chief.
(A. H., 1926.) 150
17. Yukon Indians, a, George Halfway, Nulato on the Yukon. (A. H.,
1926.) b, Jack Curry of Nulato, 41 years. (Now at Ruby, middle
Yukon; Eskimoid physiognomy.) c, Arthur Malamvot, of Nulato. 150
88253°-^0 3 25
26 ILLUSTRATIONS
Page
18. a, Indian children, mission school at Anvik, lower middle Yukon.
6, Indian children, mission school at Anvik, lower middle Yukon.
c, Two women of Anvik, on the Yukon, somewhat Eskimoid 150
19. Terminal piece of a lance or harpoon, northern Bering Sea. Black,
high natural polish. Most beautiful piece of the fossil ivory art.
(A. H., 1926, U.S.N. M.) 174
20. Fossil ivory specimens showing the old curvilinear designs. Northern
Bering Sea. (A. H. coll., 1926, U.S.N.M.) 174
21. Objects showing the old fossil ivory art, northern Bering Sea.
(U.S.N.M., Nos. 1 and 3 coll., A. H.," 1926.) J74
22. Fossil ivory needle cases and spear heads, northern Bering Sea, show-
ing fine workmanship. (A. H. coll., 1926, U.S.N.M.) 174
23. a, Small, finely made objects in fossil ivory and stone (the head),
from the ruins at Point Hope. (A. H. coll., 1926.) 6, Old fossil
ivory olijects, northern Bering Sea. The article to the right is
almost classic in form; it is decorated on both sides. (A. H. coll.,
1926, U.S.N.M.) 174
24. Fossil ivory combs, upper Bering Sea. (A. H. coll., 1926) 174
25. Fossil ivory objects from the upper Bering Sea region. Transitional
art. (Museum of tlie Agricultural College, Fairbanks, Alaska.) 174
26. Old black finely carved fossil ivory figure, from the northeastern
Asiatic coast. (Loan to U.S.N.M. by Mr. Carl Lomen.) 174
27. Wooden figurines from a medicine lodge, Choco Indians, Panama.
(U.S.N.M. colls.) 174
28. Left: Two beautiful knives lately made of fossil mammoth ivory
by a Seward Peninsula Eskimo. (Gift to the U.S.N.M. by A. H.,
1926.) Right: Two old ceremonial Mexican obsidian knives.
Manche de poignard en ivoire, avec sculpture reprSsentant un
renne. Montastruc (Peccadeau de I'lsle; in De Quatrefages (A.) —
Hommes fossiles, Paris, 1884, p. 50.) 174
29. Billings and Gall's map of Bering Strait and neighboring lands, 1811.. 178
30. Eskimo villages and sites, Norton Sound and Bay and Seward Penin-
sula, and the Kotzebue Sound, from Zagoskin's general map, 1847. 178
31. Graves at Nash Harbor, Nunivak Island. (Photos by Collins and
Stewart, 1927.) 214
32. The school children at Wales 214
33. a. Children, Nunivak Island. (Photo by Collins and Stewart, 1927.)
6, Adults, Nunivak Island. (Photo by Collins and Stewart, 1927.) _ 214
34. King Island Eskimo; a family group 214
35. King Island native 214
36. A fine full-blood Eskimo pair, northern Bering Sea region, a, Young
Eskimo woman, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo by Lomen
Bros.) 6, Eskimo, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo by F. H.
Nowell.) 214
37. Typical full-blood Eskimo, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo by
Lomen Bros.) 214
38. Elderly man, St. Lawrence Island. (Photos by R. D. Moore, 1912.
U. S. N. M.) 214
39. The Wales people. (Photo by Lomen Bros.) 242
40. The long broad-faced types, Wales. (Photo by Lomen Bros.) 242
41. a, The broad-faced and low-vaulted Eskimo, St. Lawrence Island.
(Photo by R. D. Moore, 1912. U. S. N. M.). 6, Broad-faced
type, St. Lawrence Island. (Photo by R. D. Moore, 1912. U. S.
N. M.) 242
rLLUSTRiTIONS 27
Page
42. The long-faced type, n, A young man from Seward Peninsula.
6, A boy from St. Lawrence Island 242
43. A "Hypereskimo," King Island. Excessively developed face 242
44. Eskimo "Madonna" and child, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo
by Lomen Bros.) 242
45. Young woman, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo by Lomen Bros.)- 250
46. Young women, full-blood Eskimo, Seward Peninsula. (Photo by
Lomen Bros.) 250
47. A Point Hope group 250
48. a. Eskimo woman, Kevalina. (Photo on the "Bear" by A. H., 1926.
U. S. N. M.). 6, The body build of an adult Eskimo woman,
upper Bering Sea 250
49. Elderly woman, St. LawTence Island. (Photos by R. D. Moore, 1912.
U. S. N. M.) 2.50
50. a, Yukon Eskimo, below Paimute. (A. H., 1926.) 6. Norton
Sound Eskimo woman and child. (A. H., 1926.) 250
51. Eskimo,. Indianlike, northern Bering Sea region. (Photos by Lomen
Bros.) 2.50
52. Eskimo, Indianlike, northern Bering Sea region. (Photos by Lomen
Bros.) 250
53. Eskimo, Indianlike, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo by Lomen
Bros.) 250
54. Eskimo, Indianlike, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo by Lomen
Bros.) 250
55. Eskimo, Indianlike, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo by Lomen
Bros.) 250
56. Eskimo, Indianlike, Arctic region. (Photo by Lomen Bros.) 2.50
57. Siberian Eskimo and child, Indian type 250
58. a, Mrs. Sage, Kevalina. Fine Indian type. Born on Notak. Both
parents Notak "Eskimo." (Photo by A. H., 1926.) 6, Eskimo
family, Indian-like, near Barrow. (Photo by A. H., 1926.) 250
59. Skulls from old burials. Point Hope; right skull shows low vault.
( U. S. N. M.) 262
60. Skulls from old burials. Point Hope; right skuU shows low vault.
(U. S. N. M.) 262
61. Western Eskimo and Aleut (middle) lower jaws, showing lingual
hyperostoses. (U. S. N. M.) 308
TEXT FIGURES
1. The Tanana River between Nenana and Tanana, with Indian villages, 125
2. The Yukon from Tanana to below Kokrines 137
3. The Yukon from below Kokrines to below Koyukuk 137
4. The Yukon from below Koyukuk to Lofkas 138
5. Old map of the Nulato district 139
6. Map of Kaltag and vicinity. (By McLeod) 139
7. The Yukon from Bystraia to below Holy Cross 140
8. The Yukon from above Holy Cross to below Mountain Village 141
9. The Yukon from below Mountain Village to near Marshall 141
10. The Yukon from near Marsliall to below Kavlingnak 142
11. From above Kobolunuk to mouth of river 143
12. Conventionalized design from fossil ivory specimen shown in Plate 19. 174
13. World map 177
28 ILLUSTRATIONS
Page
14. Dall's map of the distribntion of the tribes of Alaska and adjoining
territory, 1875 178
15. Nelson's map, Eighteenth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn., 1898 179
16. Linguistic map, United States census, 1920 180
17. Villages and sites on Kodiak Island 185
18. Villages and sites on the proximal half of Alaska Peninsula 187
19. Villages and sites on the distal half of Alaska Peninsula 188
20. Eskimo villages and sites on Nushagak Bay to Kuskokwim Bay 191
21. Eskimo villages and sites, Kuskokwim Bay to Scammon Bay 193
22. Eskimo villages and sites, Scammon Bay to Norton Sound and Bay
to Cape Rodney 198
23. Eskimo villages and sites, Wales. (By Clark M. Garber, 1927) 201
24. Eskimo villages and sites, Sevv'ard Peninsula, Kotzebue Sound, and
Arctic coast, to Kevalina 203
25. Eskimo villages and sites, Kevalina to Point Barrow 207
26. Russian map of St. Lawrence Island, 1849. (Tebenkof) 209
27. Eskimo villages and sites, St. Lawrence Island, the Diomedes, and the
eastern Asiatic coast 211
28. The Bering Strait Islands 212
29. Probable movements of people from northeastern Asia to Alaska and
in Alaska. (A. Hrdlicka) 360
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA
By Ales Hrwlicka
INTRODUCTION
Alaska and the opposite parts of Asia hold, in all probability, the
key to the problem of the peopling of America. It is here, and here
alone, where a land of another continent approaches so near to
America that a passage of man with primitive means of navigation
and provisioning was possible. All the affinities of tlie American
native point toward the more eastern parts of Asia. In Siberia,
Mongolia, Tibet, Manchuria, Formosa, and in some of the islands
off southeastern Asia, living remnants of the same type of man as
the American aborigines are to this day encountered, and it is here
in the farthest northwest wliere actual passings of parties of natives
between the Asiatic coast and the Bering Sea islands and between
the latter and the American coasts have always, since these parts were
known, been observed and are still of common occurrence.
With these facts before them, the students of the peopling of this
continent were always drawn strongly to Alaska and the opposite
parts of Asia; but the distances, the difficulties of communication,
and the high costs of exploration in these far-off regions have proven
a serious hindrance to actual investigation. As a result, but little
direct, systematic, archeological or anthropological (somatological)
research has ever been carried out in these regions; though since
Bering's, Cook's, and Vancouver's opening voyages to these parts a
large amount of general, cultural, and linguistic observations on the
natives has accumulated.
For these observations, which are much in need of a compilation
and critical analysis, science is indebted to the above-named captains ;
to the subsequent Russian explorers, and especially to the Russian
clerics who were sent to Alaska as missionaries or priests to the
natives; to various caijtains, traders, agents, miners, soldiers, and
men in collateral branches of science, who came in contact witli the
aborigines; to special United States Government exploratory expe-
ditions, with an occasional participation of the Biological Survey
and the Smithsonian Institution, such as resulted in tlie fine '" Cor-
win " reports and the highly valuable accounts of Leffingwell, Dall,
29
30 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ann. la
Nelson, and Murdoch ; to the separate pieces of scientific work by men
such as Goidon and Jennes; and to Joclielson and Bogoras of the
Jesup exploring expedition of the American Museum.
As a result of all these contributions, it may be said that there has
been established a fair cultural and linguistic knowledge of the Aleut,
the Eskimo, and the Chukchee, not to speak of the Tlingit, considera-
tion of which seems more naturally to fall with that of the Indians
of the northwest coast.
There are also numerous though often very imperfect and occa-
sionally rather contradictory notes on the physical status of these
peoples, and some valuable cultural and even skeletal collections were
made. Since 1912 we possess also a good series of measurements on
the St. Lawrence Island natives, together with valuable cranial ma-
terial fi'om that locality, made, under the direction of the writer, by
Kiley D. Moore, at that time aide in the Division of Physical
Anthropology in the United States National Museum.
The need of a further systematic archeological and somatological
research in this important part of the world was long since felt, and
several propositions were made in this line to the National Research
Council (Hrdlicka) and to the Smithsonian Institution (Hough,
Hrdlicka) ; but nothing came of these until the early part of 1926,
when, a little money becoming available, the writer was intrusted
by the Bureau of American Ethnology with the making of an exten-
sive preliminary survey of Alaska. The objects of the trip wei'e,
in brief, to ascertain as much as possible about the surviving Indians
and Eskimos; to trace all indications of old settlements and migi-a-
tions ; and to collect such skeletal and archeological material as might
be of importance.
The trip occupied approximately four months, from the latter
part of May to the latter part of September, affording a full season
in Alaska. It began with the inside trip from Vancouver to Juneau,
where at several of the stopping places gi-oups of the northwest coast
Indians were observed. At Juneau examination was made of the
valuable archeological collections in the local museum. After this
followed a trip with several stops along the gulf, a railroad trip with
some stops to Fairbanks, a return trip to Nenana, a boat trip on the
Tanana to the Yukon, and then, with little boats of various sorts, a
trip with many stops for about 900 miles down the Yukon. This
in turn was followed by a side trip in Norton Sound, after which
transportation was secured to the island of St. Michael and to Nome.
From Nome, after some work in the vicinity, the revenue cutter Bear
look the writer to the St. Lawrence and Diomede Islands, to Cape
Wales, and thence from place to place of scientific interest up to
Barrow. On the return a number of the more important places.
iiRDLicKA] INTRODUCTION 31
besides some new ones, were touched upon, while the visit to others
was prevented by the increasing storms, and the trip ended at
Unalaska.
Throughout the journey, the writer received help from the Gov-
ernor, officials, missionaries, traders, and people of Alaska; from
the captain, officers, and crew of the Bear; and from many indi-
viduals; for all of which cordial thanks are hereby once more ren-
dered. Grateful acknowledgments are especially due to the follow-
ing gentlemen : Governor George A. Parks, of Alaska ; Mr. Harry G.
Watson, his secretary ; Mr. Karl Thiele, Secretary for Alaska ; Judge
James Wickersham, formerly Delegate from Alaska; Father A. P.
Kashevaroff, curator of the Territorial Museum and Library of
Juneau ; Dr. William Chase, of Cordova ; Mr. Noel W. Smith, gen-
eral manager Government railroad of Alaska; Mr. B. B. Mozee,
Indian supervisor, and Dr. J. A. Romig, of Anchorage ; Prof. C. E.
Bunnell, president Alaska Agriculture College, at Fairbanks; Mr. and
Mrs. Fullerton, missionaries, at Tanana; Rev. J. W. Chapman and
Mr. Harry Lawrence, at Anvik; Father Jette and Jim Walker, at
Holy Cross; Mr. C. Betsch, at the Russian Mission; Messrs. Frajdc
Tucker and E. C. Gurtler, near the mission ; Mr. Frank P. Williams,
of St. Michael; Judge G. J. Lomen and his sons and daughter, at
Nome; Rev. Dr. Baldwin, Fathers La Fortune and Post, Captain
Ross, LTnited States Coast Guard, and Mr. Elmer Rydeem, merchant,
at Nome; C. S. Cochran, captain of the Bear, and his officers, par-
ticularly Mr. H. Berg, the boatswain; Rev. F. W. Goodman and
Mr. LaVoy, at Point Hope ; the American teachers at Wales, Shish-
mareff, Kotzebue, Point Hope, and elsewhere; Messrs. Tom Berry-
man, Jim Allen, and Charles Brower, traders, respectively, at Kotze-
bue, Wainright, and Barrow ; Mr. Sylvester Chance, superintendent
of education, Kotzebue, Alaska ; the United States marshals, depvity
marshals, and postmasters along the route ; and the numerous traders,
miners, settlers, and others who were helpful with specimens, advice,
guidance, and in other matters.
")
General Remarks
The account of the survey will be limited in the main to anthro-
pological and archeological observations; but it is thought best to
give it largely in the form of the original notes made on the spot
or within a few hours after an event. These notes often contain
collateral observations or thoughts which could be excluded, but the
presence of which adds freshness, reliability, and some local at-
mosphere to what otherwise would be a rather dry narrative. A pre-
liminary account of the trip and its results was published in the
32 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ann. 46
Smithsonian exploration volume for 1926 (AVashino^ton, 1927, pp.
137-158).
Not much reference is possible to previous work of the nature
here dealt with in the parts visited, except in the Aleutian Islands,
where good archeological work was done in the late sixties by
William H. Dall,i and in 1909-10 by Waldemar Jochelson.-
The archeology and anthropology of the Gulf of Alaska, the in-
land, the Yukon Basin, the Bering Sea coasts and islands, and those
of the Arctic coasts up to Point Barrow are but little known. The
archeology is in reality known only from the stone and old ivory
implements that have been incidentally collected and have reached
various institutions where they have been studied ; from the excava-
tions about Bari'ow, conducted by an expedition of the University
Museum, Philadelphia, in charge of W. B. Van Valin, and by the
trader, Mr. Charles Brower, the results of which have not yet been
published ; and from the recent diggings at Wales and on the smaller
Diomede Island by Doctor Jenness." Neither Dall. Nelson. Rau, nor
Murdoch conducted any excavations outside the already mentioned
work in the Aleutians.
Northwest Coast — jTJNEAtr
THE COAST INDIANS
Passage was taken on a small steamer from Vancouver. The
boat stopped at a number of settlements on the scenic " inside "
route — which impresses one as a much enlaiged and varied trip
through the Catskills — permitting some observations on the Indians
*of these parts.
The main opportunity was had at Aleut Bay. Here many British
Columbia Indians were seen on the dock, belonging to several tribes.
Names of these, as pronounced to me, were unfamiliar. They have
a large agency here; engage in salmon industry. A minority, only,
iDaU, Wm. H. : Alaska as it Was and Is; 1865-1895. Bull. PML Soc. Wash., 1900,
vol. XIII, 141. On Prehistoric Remains in the Aleutian' Islands. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci.,
November, 1872, toI. iv, 283-287. Explorations on the Western Coast of North America.
Smiths. Kept, for 1873, Wash., 1874, 417—418. On Further Examinations of the
Amaknak Cave. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., 1873, vol. v, 196-200. Notes on Some Aleut
Mummies. Proc Cal. Acad. Sci., Octohcr, 1874, vol. v. 399^00. Deserted Hearths.
The Overland Monthly, 1874, vol. xiii, 25-30. Alaskan Mummies. Am. Naturalist, 1875,
vol. IX, 433-440. Tribes of the Extreme Northwest. Contrib. N. Am. Ethnol., vol. i.
Wash., 1877. On the Remains of Later Prehistoric Man Obtained from Cavc-S in the
Catharina Archipelago, Alaska Territory, etc. Smiths. Contr. to Knowledge, No. 318.
Wash., 1878.
- Jochelson, W., Archjeological Investigations in the Aleutian Islands. Carnegie Inst,
of Wash. Publ. No. 367, Wash., D. C. 1925.
i' Rau, Chas., North American Stone Implements. Smiths. Rept. for 1872, Wash.,
1873. Prehistoric Fishing in Europe and North America. Smiths. Contr. to Knowl-
edge, Wash., 1884, vol. xxv. Thomas, Cyrus, Introduction to the Study of North
American Archaeology. Cincinnati, 1898. Jennes, D. Archieological Investigations in
Bering Strait. Ann. Rep. Nat. Mus. Canada for 1926 (Ottawa 1928), pp. 71-80.
HEDLK-KA] INTEODUCTION" 33
full bloods — of the younger a large majority mixed (white blood).
The full bloods all show one marked type, of short to moderate
stature, rather short legs, huge chest and head, i. e., face. Color
near onion-brown, without luster. Indians, but modified locally.
Remind one (chest, stature, stockiness, shortness of neck and legs)
of Peruvian Indians.
Indians at Prince Rupert same type; color pale brown; eyes and
nose rather small for the faces in some, in others good size. Look
good deal like some Chinese or rather some hand-laboring Chinese
and JajDanese look like them.
Indians at Juneau (the Auk tribe) very similar, but most mixed
with whites.
Jiuieau. — A week was spent at Juneau, gathering information, ob-
taining letters of introduction, and making a few excursions. The
city has an excellent museum devoted to Alaskan history and arche-
ology, under the able curatorship of Father Andrew P. Kashevaroff,
himself a part of the history of the Territory. The archeological
collections of Alaska Indians and Eskimos are in some respects —
e. g., pottery — more comprehensive than those of any other of
our museums; but they, together with the valuable library,
are housed in a frail frame building, under great risks from botli
fire and thieves. Fortunately the latter are still scarce in Alaska,
but the fire risk is great and ever present. The museum is a decided
cultural asset to Juneau.
NOTES OF ARCHEOLOGICAL INTEREST
Auk Point. — Thanks to Father KashevaroflP and Mr. Charles H.
Florv, the district forester, an excursion was arranged one day to
Auk Point, approximately 15 miles distant, a picturesque wooded
little promontoiy near which there used to be a settlement of the Auk
Indians. On the jjoint were several burials of shamans and a chief of
the tribe (all other dead being cremated), and near the graves stood
until a short time ago a moderate-sized totem pole. Of all this
we found but bare remnants. The burials of three shamans and one
chief had been in huge boxes above ground; but they had all been
broken into and most of the contents belonging to the dead were
taken away, including the skulls. The skeletal parts of two of the
bodies and a few bones of the chief remained, however, with a few
objects the vandals had overlooked. The latter were placed in the
Juneau Museum while the bones, showing some features of interest,
were collected and sent to Washington. A large painted board near
the graves of the shamans remained, though damaged. The totem
pole, however, had been cut down the year before by a young man
from Juneau, who then severed the head, which he carried home,
34 ANTHROPOLOGICAL, SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 46
and left the rest on the beach, from where it was soon washed
away. Thus a group of burials, the only ones known of the once
good-sized Auk tribe, have been despoiled and their record lost to
science. And such a fate is, according to all accounts, rapidly
overtaking similar remains everj^where in southeastern Alaska.
Rare stone lamp (?). — At the museum one of the first and most
interesting objects shown the writer bj^ Father Kaslievaroff was a
large, heavy, finely sculptured oblong bowl, made of hard, dark
crystalline stone, decorated in relief on the rim and with a squatting
stone figure, cut from the same piece, near one of the ends. The
bowl looks like a ceremonial lamp, though showing no trace of
oil or carbon. Subsequently four other bowls of this same re-
markable type and workmanship were learned of, two, the best of
the lot, in the University Museum at Philadelphia; one in the
Museum of the American Indian, New York ; and one, somewhat in-
ferior and of reddish stone, in the possession of Mr. Miiller, the
trader at Kaltag, on the Yukon (later in that of Mr. Lynn Smith,
marshal at Fairbanks). The localities where the five remarkable
and higli-grade specimens have been found range from the Kenai
Peninsula in soutliwestern Alaska to the lower Yukon. The Juneau
specimen comes from Fish Creek, near Kuik, Cook Inlet (see De-
scriptive Booklet Alaska Hist. ]\Ius., Juneau, 1922, pp. 26. 27) : that
in the Heye Museum is from tlie same localitj-; the one in Philadel-
phia was found in the Kenai Peninsula; while that at Kaltag came
from an old Indian site on the Kaiuh slough of the Yukon. Locally,
there is much inclination to regard these specimens as Asiatic, es-
pecially Japanese, and a bronze Japanese Temple medal has been
found near that now at Juneau. On the other hand, a strong sug-
gestion of similarity to these dishes is presented by some undecorated
large stone lamps from Alaska, and by a class of pottery bowls with
a human figure perched on the rim at one end from some of the
Arkansas mounds, Mexico, and farther southward. (See Mason,
J. A. A remarkable stone lamp from Alaska. The Museum Jour.,
Phila., 1928. 170-194.)
Copper mask. — Shortly before leaving Juneau I became acquainted
with Mr. Robert Simpson, manager of the " Nugget " curio shop, and
found in his possession a number of interesting specimens made in
the past by the Tlingit Indians. An outstanding piece was an old
copper mask, which was purchased for the the National Musuem.
Mr. Simpson obtained it years ago from a native of Yakutat and
stored it with native furs and other articles of value. It originally
belonged to a shaman of the Yakutat tribe and was said to have been
worn by him in sacrificial slave killings, the shaman with the mask
representing some mythical being. It is an exceedingly good and rare
piece of native workmanship.
HKDI.UKA] . INTEODXJCTION 35
Copper '■'■ shield^ — Another interesting article secured from Mr.
Simpson is a large old shieldlike plate of beaten copper, decorated
on one side with a characteristic Tlingit engraved design. Mr. Simp-
son, in a letter to Doctor Hough, dated June 26, 1926, says : " The
shield, or to speak more correctly the copper plate — for it was not
used as a shield — was the most valuable possession of the Tlingits.
They were usually valued in slaves, this one, at the last known ex-
change, having been traded for three slaves. The possessor of four
or five such plates was a man of the utmost wealth. Some claim that
they got these copper plates from the early New England traders and
others that they came from the Copper River. Either is possible.
Lots of the Copper River nuggets were very large and flat and could
have readily been hammered into plate form. I bought this in the
village of Klawak on the west coast of Prince of Wales Island. I
do not know of another one around here. All of the local elderly
natives are familiar with its previous value, and when they have
wandered into my shop to sell things they always made deep obei-
sance to this plate."
Talks. — While in Juneau the writer spoke before the Rotarians,
who honored him with a lunch ; and later, in the auditorium of the
fine new high school, gave a public lecture on " The Peopling of
America," etc. The object of these and the many subsequent talks in
Alaska was, on the one hand, to reciprocate as far as possible the
kindness and help received on all sides, and on the other to leave
wholesome information and stimulus in things anthropological. The
audience was invariably all that a lecturer could desire, and many
were left everywhere eager for help and cooperation. The aid of
some of these men, including prospectors, miners, settlers, engineers,
foresters, and various officials, may some day prove of much value
in the search for Alaskan antiquities.
Juneau — /Seward. — June 8, leave Juneau. It has been raining
every day, with one exception, and is misting now, depriving us of
a view of most of the coast. Wlierever there is a glimpse of it,
however, it is seen to be mountainous, wooded below, snowy and icy
higher up, inhospitable, forbidding.
June 10, arrive at Cordova, a former native and Russian settle-
ment of some importance. Will stay here large part of the day and
go to see about Indians, old sites, burials, and specimens, the main
liotel keeper, the assistant superintendent of the local railway, the
postmaster, the supervisor of the forests, and Dr. William Chase,
who has been connected with the work of the Biological Survey in
these regions. Mr. AV. J. McDonald, the forester, takes me out some
miles into the very rugged country, where there are still plenty of
bear and mountain goat. After which Doctor Chase takes me to the
old Russian and Indian cemetery. There are many graves, mostly
36 ANTHUOPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. axn. 4G
Indian, but also a few whites, and even a Chinaman. Russian
crosses are still common. The older Indian part could be easily
excavated. Learn of skulls and bones on " mummy " island in Prince
William Sound.
hiMans. — See quite a few. Nearly all appear more or less mixed;
color in these more or less pronounced tan with red in cheeks and
.some tendency to paleness. Heads still all brachycephalic and of
only moderate height; faces bi'oad, noses not prominent, in males
tend to large.
Two adult men, evidently full-bloods — jDui-e Indian type of the
brachycephalic form, head moderate in size, medium short, face not
very large, nose slightly or moderately convex, not prominent, but
all Indian. Color of skin submedium to near medium brown, no trace
of whitish or pink. Stature and build medium; feet rather small;
hair typical Indian, black, straight ; beard sparse and short ; mustache
sparse, no hair on sides of the face.
The boat makes two or three more commercial and passenger
stops before reaching Seward, the main one at Valdez, the terminal
of the Richardson Trail to the interior. These stops permit us to
see some fish canneries, which are of both general and anthropologi-
cal interest. These establishments employ Japanese, Philippine, and
Chinese labor, and it was found to be (juite a task to distinguish
these, and to tell them from the coast Indians. The Chinamen can
be distinguished most often, though not always, the Japanese less
so, while the Filipino usually can not be told from the Indian, even
by an expert. Here was a striking practical lesson in relationships.
Seward — Anchorage. — Seward found to be a fine little town, full
of the same good brand of people that one finds everywhere in
Alaska and who go so far to restore one's faith in humanity. It
is the terminus of the Government railroad to Fairbanks and a port
of some importance.
Indmn hmket)n/. — No Indians were seen here, though some come
occasionally. But several of the stores, including that of the Seward
Drug Co. (Mr. Elwyn Swestmann), have an unexpectedly good
sujoply of decorated Alaska Indian baskets. It was found later, in
fact, that the Alaskan Indians, with the Aleutians, compare well in
basketry with those of Arizona and California.
Anchorage. — June 12-13. Anchorage, on Cook's Inlet, is a good-
sized town for Alaska and the headquarters of the railroad. Here
"were met some very good friends, particularly Mr. Noel W. Smith,
general manager of the railroad; Dr. J. H. Romig, formerly of the
Kuskokwim; and Mr. B. B. Mozee, the Indian supervisor. Here, at
Ellis Hall, I lectured on " The Origin and Racial Affiliations of
the Indians," and the large audience included seven male (some full
hrdluka] INTEODUCTION 37
blood) and two female (mix blood) Indians — of the latter, one very
pretty, approaching a Spanish type of beauty. Near town I also
visited with a launch two small Indian fishing camijs. From Doctor
Romig information was obtained about the Indians and some old
sites of the Kusltokwim ; and through the kindness of Messrs. Smith
and Mozee I was enabled to visit the Indian school at Eklutna. Here
at Anchorage I also was given the first and rather rare old Indian
stone implement.
The Indians at the camps included 6 full bloods — i men, 2 women.
One of the men tested on chest. Typical full-blood results.
Type of full bloods : Color slightly submedium to medium brown,
never darker; heads, subbrachyceplialic to full brachycephalic,
rather small; forehead in men more or less sloping in two; face,,
not large, Indian; nose tends to convex but not high. Indian in
features and behavior, but features not as pronounced as general
in the States tribes.
The full bloods in town : Medium to short stature, not massive
frames, moderate-sized faces, Indian type, but not the pronounced
form; head brachycephalic ; hair all black; mustache and beard
scarce, as in Indians in general; color of skin submedium brown.
Children in camp (up to about 5 years) were striking by a relative-
ly considerable interorbital breadth, otherwise typical Indian.
Birch-haTk dishes. — At Anchorage, in several of the stores, but
particulai'ly at one small store, were seen many nicely decorated
birch-bark dishes or recej^tacles. They are made by inland Indians,
are prettily decorated with colored porcupine quills, and evidently
take the place of the baskets of other tribes. It was difficult to learn
just what Indians made the best or most, though the Tananti
people were mentioned. No such fine assortment of these dishes
was seen aftei' leaving Anchorage.
EJilutua. — Sixteen miles from Anchorage, along the railroad, is
the Indian village and school Eklutna. ]\Ir. Smith made it possible
for me to reach this place on a freight and to be picked up later the
same day by the passenger train.
At Eklutna was found an isolated but prettily located and well-
kept Indian school, with about fifty children from many parts of
soutliwestern Alaska. More than half of these children showed
more or less admixture of white blood, but there was a minority of
unquestionable full bloods. There were two children from Kodiak
Island and two or three southern Eskimo. The main impression
after a detailed look at the children was that, while they all showed
clear Indian affinities and some were typically Indian, yet on the
whole there was a prevalent trace of something Eskimoid in the
physiognomies — an observation that was to be repeated more than
once in other parts of Indian Alaska.
38 ANTHROPOLOGICAL, SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ann, 46
Burials. — At a few minutes* walk from the school at Eklutna
there is in a clearing of the forest a small Indian village, with a
late graveyard showing Russian influence. A short distancje
farther, however, according to the Indians, there is an old burial
place of some magnitude, with traces of graves, although quite
obliterated.
Eklutiia — FaJrharikfi. — Since reaching Seward the almost inces-
sant drizzles have ceased and the weather has been fine and pleasantly
warm. Everything is green, grass is luxuriant, and there are many
flowers.
The railroad journey is a regular scenic tour, with its crowning
point a glorious view of Mount McKinley. The trains run only in the
daytime. For the night a stop is made at a railroad hotel, in a
quiet, picturesque location, at the edge of a good-sized river. They
have foxes in cages here and a tame reindeer. There are no nativesi
in this vicinity.
There are two interesting passengers on the train, with both of
vsrhom I became well acquainted. One is Joe Bernard, an explorer
and collector (besides his other occupations) in Alaska and Siberia.
He furnishes me with some valuable pictures and much information.
The other man is Captain Wilkins, the flier of Point Barrow fame,
who strikes me as an able and modest man.
The next day, as the train stops at Nenana, I am met, thanks to a
word sent by Mr. Noel W. Smith, by Chief Thomas and a group of
his people. These behave kindly and tell me of a potlatch to be held
at Tanana " after some days," where they will visit. The chief im-
presses me with his rather refined though thoroughly Indian
countenance.
Fairbanks. — Before reaching Fair-banks, the inland capital of
Alaska, I am met by Prof. C. E. Bunnell, head of the Alaska Agri-
cultural College. This college, located on an elevation about 4 miles
out of the city, I visit with Professor Bunnell soon after arrival, to
find there some interesting paleontological and archeological collec-
tions. Here are fair beginnings which well deserve the good will of
the Alaskans. Unfortunately the college has not yet the means
for any substantial progress or research in these lines, and the collec-
tions are housed in a frame building where they are in serious danger
from fire. But their presence will aid, doubtless, in the saving of
other material of similar nature from the Tanana region, and speci-
mens of special scientific importance will doubtless be i-ef erred to
scientific institutions outside.
Fairbanks is a good-sized town, built on the wide flats of the
Tanana River. Its population, now reduced, includes some civilized
natives, most of whom, however, are mix breeds. A large peti-ified
mammoth tusk on the porch of one of the semi-log houses shows
HRDi.irKA] WRITER'S TRIP ON YUKON" 39
that these are regions of more than ordinary biological interest. And
there is soon an occurrence which demonstrates this fuither. Mr.
John Buckley, the deputy marshal, takes me to an old Japanese
resident, now a rooming-house keeper, who has had a hobby of col-
lecting fossils, and who in the end is happy to donate to the Nationa.1
Museum a fine skull of a fossil Alaskan horse, together with some
other specimens, refusing all payment. Such is the human Alaska,
or at least the most of it.
Here, too, to a full hall in the library, a lecture is given on " The
Peopling of Alaska and America," after which follows a return to
Nenana to catch a steamer to the Yukon.
THE WRITER'S TRIP ON THE YUKON
TANAXA YUKON
June 17. Nenana: This is a small town on the Tanana, mostly
railroad buildings, with a hospital; there is one street of stores
(three short blocks), most of them now empty. About half a mile
off a small Indian settlement about an Episcopalian mission.
Country flat on both sides of the rather large river, except for
some hills back of the right shore beyond the railroad bridge, for a
short distance. The river flats seem scarcely 3 or 4 feet above water,
overgrown with brush and a few scrubby trees, later spruce thickets.
Purple flowers (fireweed) strike the eye.
No relics found at Nenana ; no information concerning old sites or
abandoned villages along the stream.
Physically, the Indians seen at Nenana were submedium brown,
good many still full blood, pure Indian type, brachycephalic, faces
(nose, etc.), however, of but medium prominence. Moderate to good
stature.
They are all fairly "civilized," wear white men's clolhing, to
which on gala occasions are added bands or collars of beadwork, and
sjjeak more or less English. The younger men are evidently good
workers.
The distance from Nenana to Tanana is given as about 190 miles
by the river.
The government boat Jacohs^ on which» we shall go down the
Tanana, is a moderate-sized, shallow-bottomed stern-wheeler, and,
like all such boats on these rivers, will push a heavily laden freight
barge before it. There are about a dozen passengers, the boat
labor, a trader or two. All kindly, open. A few women — most of
both sexes of the Scandinavian type. On barge some horses, a cow,
pigs, chickens.
Leave after lunch — very good, generous, and pleasant meal in a
local restaurant that would do credit to a large city ; only the people
40 ANTHEOPOLOGICAL, SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. axn. 40
are better, more human. Meals $1, the almost universal price in
Alaska.
Some quaint expressions : When anyone has been away, especially
to the States, they say he was " outside." I am an " outsider ;"
show it " by my collar." Underdone bacon is " easy." To assent
they say " you bet." In a restaurant, to a decent, cheerful girl :
"May i have a little hot coffee?" "You bet!" Which bright
answer is heard so often that one finishes by being shy to ask.
Dogs, of course, do not pull, but " mush." This is from the Cana-
dian French " marche." Dogs do not understand " go " or " go on,"
only " mush."
Extensive flats. Below Nenana these flats, plainly recent alluvial,
are said to extend up to 60 miles to the left (southwestward) and to
20 miles to the right. As one passes nearer they are seen to range
from 3 up to about 8 feet above the level of the river at this stage
of water.
Cabins and fishing camps along the river, mostly flimsy structures,
with a few tents. Indians in some. The Indians are said by the
whites to be pretty lazy, living from day to day; yet they seem
industrious enough in their own camps and in their own way.
Storage or caches, little houses on stilts. Dog houses in rows.
Curious wheel fish traps, revolving like hay or wheat lifting ma-
chines, run by the current. They scoop out the fish and let them fall
into a box, from which the fisherman collects them twice a day. It
is the laziest fishing that could be devised. The contraption is said
to come from the northwest coast, but has become one of the char-
acteristic parts of the scenery along the Tanana and the Yukon.
An Indian camp — stacks of cordwood — canoes.
The day is sunny, moderately warm and rather dry — about as a
warm, dry, fall day with us. The river shows bars, with caught
driftwood; also considerable floating wood. There are seagulls,
said to destroy young ducks and geese and water birds' eggs.
Shores now wooded, mainly poplar, not large. Farther back and
farther down, spruce.
The river averages about 200 to 300 yards but differs much in
places and there are numerous side channels (sloughs) . It is crooked ;
many bends. The current is quite marked, stated to run 4 to 6 miles
an hour. The water is charged with grayish-brown silt, part from
glaciers higher above, part from banks that are being " cut." The
banks are entirely silt, no trace of gravel or stone. Indian camps
getting very scarce. Boat making good time, but now and then re-
quires careful manipulation, with its big, heavy barge in front. Once
driven to shore, but no damage, and after some effort gets away
again. No trouble yet from mosquitoes, but there are some horseflies.
HRDLi.KA] WEITER'S TRIP ON YUKON 41
Pass a large camp — a Finn married to a squaw, and three or four
Indian families — all snug in a clearing of the fresh-looking woods
on the bank of the river.
Bend after bend in the stream, and boat has to follow them all,
and more, for the current and deeper water are now near this bank
and again at the opposite bank.
The water in many places is undermining the bank, exposing
frozen strata of silt. The top often falls in without breaking, with
trees and all, and it then looks like heavy, ragged mats hanging over
the bank, with green trees or bushes dipping into the water, and per-
haps a chnnp of wild roses pi-ojecting from the sward. There are
many low bushes of wild roses in this country, pink and red kinds,
now blooming. Also many small bushes of wild berries — cranberries
(low and high), raspberries, dewberries or blueberi'ies.
Meat is im])orted even to here from Seattle, and carried far down
the Yukon. When received they place it in a " cellar " or hole dug
down to the frozen ground and place the meat there — a natural and
thoroughly efficient refrigerator.
Past Old Minto, a little Indian village, a few little log houses in
a row facing the river, with a wheel fish trap in front (pi. 1, a).
Later a few Indian houses and a " road house '' with a store at Tolo-
vana. Most Indians there (and elsewhere here) died of tlie '' flu "
in 1918, the bodies being left and later buried by the Government.
A few isolated little Indian camps.
The boat ties to trees along the banks. No docks or anything of
that nature. Not many mosquitoes yet, more horseflies, which, how-
ever, do not botlier man very much.
After reaching Hot Springs (right bank), there is seen a long
range of more or less forested, fairly steep-sloped hills along the
right bank, coming right down to the water's edge for miles, with
bush and forested flats opposite. At the end of one of the ravines
with a little stream, right on the bank, remnants of a little glacier
melting very slowly in the sun. Strange contrast, ice and green
touching. Boat making good time along the hills.
June 18. Hardly any sleep. Sun set after 10 and rose about 2.30,
with no more than dusk between. Then heat in the cabin, and above
all the noises. The boat stuck five hours on a bar and there were all
sorts of jerks and shudders and calls.
Flats again on both sides, but hills beyond, with just one little
spot of snow. Will be warm day again.
ANCIENT MAN
Prospects of old remains of man all along the river are slight if
any. Old silt flats have doubtless been mostly washed away (as now)
and rebuilt. Only on the older parts, now often far from water,
88253°— 30 4
42 ANTHEOPOLOGtCA^L SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ann. 46
could anything remain and there it is all a jungle of forest with un-
dergrowth, with all surface traces absent (no stone, no shell), and no
one here to find things accidentally. As to the hills that approach
the river, the slopes (shales, overlain by what looks like stratified
mud and silt rock) are mostly of recent exposure, and have doubt-
less been receding slowly through erosion, so that the bank line along
them is not old ; and their valleys are few, narrow, and were higher
formerly as well as more extended toward where the river flowed
then. The only hopeful spot is about Hot Springs, where fossil
animal remains are said to exist, but here nothing as yet has been
noted suggesting ancient man.
June 18, 4 p. m. River getting broader. Some low dunes. In
distance a range of bluish hills before us — the hills along the Yukon.
Boat meandering from side to side. Every now and then a necessary
steam blow-out of mud, or a short whistle, hurry of a man over the
top of the barge and of two half-breeds along its side to the prow
to test, with long pointed and graduated poles, the depth of the
water, calling it out to the captain. The calls range from " no
bottom '■ to " 4 feet," at the latter of which the boat begins to touch
and back water.
5 p. m. Arrived at Tanana, a cheerful looking town, extending
over about half a mile along the right bank of the Yukon, here
about 20 feet high ; but now, with the gold rush over, rather " slack "
on both business and population, as are all other Yukon towns.
Somewhat disappointed with the Yukon — not as majestic here as
expected. See storekeeper — introduced by captain. Hear good news.
The Indians have a big potlatch at the mission, 2 miles above.
Tanana Indians expected. And there will be many in attendance.
Rumors of this potlatch were heard before, but this was the first
definite information. Get on a little motor boat with Indians who
were making some purchases, and go to the St. Thomas Episcopal
Mission, Mr. Fullerton in charge.
THE INDIANS AT TANANA
The mission above Tanana is beautifully located on the elevated
right Yukon bank, facing Nuklukhayet island and point, the latter,
according to old reports, an old trading and meeting spot of the
Kuchin tribes, and the confluence of the Tanana with the Yukon.
The mission house, located on rising ground, the wooden church
lower down, the cemetery a bit farther up, and the Indian village a
bit farther downstream, with their colors and that of the luxuriant
vegetation, form a picturesque cluster.
I am kindly received by Mr. Fullerton and his wife and given
accommodation in their house. On the part of the good-sized In-
HKDLiCKA] WRITER'S TRIP ON YUKON 43
dian village everything is life and bustle and we soon are over.
Motor launches owned and operated by the Indians in the river;
dogs, scores of the big, half -wild, noisy sled dogs tied to stakes along
the slope of the bank, fighting stray ones, barking in whole out-
bursts, feeding on smelly fish, or digging cooling holes into the bank
in which they hide most of the body from the warm rays of the
sun; and many Indians, about 400 in all, in whole families, in houses,
large canvas tents, cooking, eating, visiting — a busy multitude, but
with white man's clothes, utensils, etc., not nearly so interesting
as a group of more primitivie Indians would be.
Walk, visit, talk, and observe. Note many mix-bloods, especially
among the younger ones and the children. Among the full bloods,
many, about one-half, with features reminding more or less of Eski-
moid; but a few typically Indian, i. e., like most of the States
Indians.
Medium stature, substantial but not massive build, quite a few of
the older women stout. Color of full bloods generally near medium
bi-own. features regular Indian but not exaggerated, noses rather
low especially in upper half, eyes and hair Indian. Epicanthus
not excessive in children, absent in adults (traces in younger women),
eyes not markedly oblique. Behavior, Indian.
The more pi'onounced Eskimoids have flatter and longer faces,
more oblique eyes, and more marked epicanthus. They should come,
it would seem, from Eskimo admixture. The Tanana Indians
(Nenana) did not, so far as seen, show sucli physiognomies.
Toward evening, and especially after supper, natives sing and
dance. Songs of Indian characteristics, and yet different from those
in south ; some more exiDressive. A song " for dead mother," very
sad. affects some to crying aloud (a woman, a man). A wash song — a
row of women and even some men imitating, standing in a row, the
movements in washing, while others sing; humorous. A dance in a
line, curving to a circle, of a more typical Indian character. Late
at night, a war dance, with much supple contortion. Also other
songs and dances up to 2.30 a. m. — heard in bed.
June 19. With dogs barking and whining and Indians singing, got
little rest. All Indians sleep until afternoon. No chance of doing
anything, so go down to town to get instruments and blanks. Find
that storekeeper has an old stone ax — sells it to me for $1. Also
tells of a farmer who has one — go there with the boat and obtain
it as a gift; told of another one — a Finn — has two, sells them for $i.
Come from the gravelly bank of the river or are dug out in garden-
ing. There may well have been old settlements in this favorable
location. After return, visit some tents to see sick. Much sickness —
eyes, tuberculosis — now and then probably syphilis.
44 ANTHROPOLOGICAL, SUEVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ann.46
Indians relatively civilized, more than expected, and most speak
tolerable English. Have flags, guns, sleep in some cases on iron
beds and under mosquito netting, smoke cigarettes and cigars; and
even play fiddles. Of course some have also learned the white man's
cupidity and vices.
This day I met with something unexpected, due to perversity of
mix-breed nature. Seeing so many Indians present, and after a
good reception by them the evening preceding, I thought of utiliz-
ing the occasion for taking some measurements. I therefore men-
tioned the thing to some of the head men shortly after my arrival
and receiving what seemed assent, went to-day to Tanana to
get my instruments. On coming back and finding a few of the old
men. who were quite friendly, I invited them into the "kashim"
(community house) and began to question them on old sites, etc.,
when in came, probably somewhat under the influence of liquor,
a mix-breed to whom I had been introduced the night before and
who at that time acted quite civilly, but now coming forward began
rather loudly and offensively to question about what I wanted here
and about authority, giving me to understand at last quite plainly
that he wanted to " be paid "' if I was to take any measurements.
He claimed to be one of the " chiefs," and I would not be allowed
to do anything without his help. His harangue quite disturbed
the other Indians, who evidently were both ashamed and afraid
of the fellow. And as I would not be coerced into employing and
paying him, and there being no one, as I learned, of supreme author-
ity, the "chief" of these Indians being little more than a figurehead,
it was decided to give up the attempt at measurements. The rest
of the visit was therefore given to further observations and to the
witnessing of the potlatch. Chief Joseph (pi. 14), nominally the
head of these Yukon Indians, expressed his sorrow and tried to
make amends by offering himself.
The potlatch was evidently in the main a social gathering of
the Yukon Indians, with the Tanana natives as visitors. It con-
sisted mainly of eating, singing, and dancing, to be terminated
by a big " give-away." This latter was witnessed. It proved a
disappointing and rather senseless affair. The whole transaction
consists in the buying and gathering, and on this occasion giving
away, of all sorts of objects, by some one, or several, who have lost
a husband, wife, mother, etc., during the preceding year. The pos-
sessions of the deceased are included in this and doubtless often
transmit disease. All the color of the observance is now gone.
The goods — blankets, clothing, fabrics, guns, and many other ob-
jects, even pieces of furniture, trunks, or stoves — are gathered in
the open and when the time comes are one after another selected
HKDLICKA] WRITER'S TRIP ON YUKON 45
by those dispensings and brought to this or that man or woman of
those who have gathered around. No song, no ceremony, no talks,
no thanking, no " wake " following. Just a poor shadow of some-
thing that formerly may have been a tragic, memorable, and meaning
occasion.
Eeturned to Tanana near 10 p. m. and found lodging with a store-
keeper who kept a " hotel." Got a big room, big bed, and when
store closed was alone in the house, the storekeeper sleeping else-
where.
June 20. But, Alaska was evidently not made for sleepers. Had
not a wink until after 3 a. m. — daylight, people talking loud and
walking on the board walk outside, and heard so clearly in my
room — loud-laughing girls, the dogs, and at last another boat with
its siren; and every now and then a singing mosquito trying to get
at me through even the small opening left under the sheet for
breathing — there being no netting. Finally doze off, to wake near
9 a. m., but everything closed, deadlike. However, go to a little
frame house for breakfast, and in waiting until it is made find my-
self with two elderly men who go to-day down the river with their
boats. One is a former store clerk, etc., and now an " optician " —
peddles eyeglasses down the river ; the other was a prospector, miner,
and blacksmith, now an itinerant " jeweler " and a reputed " hootch "
peddler. As the latter — otherwise a pretty good fellow — has a
good-sized though old boat, arrange to go down with him. See the
marshal, storekeeper, settle with my hotel man (had to go at 11 to
awake him), and ready to start.
The outfit is largely homemade, not imposing, old, unpainted, and
unfit for the rough — but it could be worse. It consists of a scow,
a low, flat-bottomed boat, partly covered with canvas roof on birch
hoops, in which Peake (the owner) carries fresh meat to some one,
a stove, dishes, bedding, and many other things ; and the motor boat
proper, in which there is little room except for the machine and its
tender. The latter sits on a soap box ; I, on a seat extemporized from
a cylindrical piece of firewood with a little board across it, with my
two boxes aJid bedding within easy reach. Sit in front of the scow,
except when driven back by spray. But our motor works and so we
start quite well at some time after 11. The arrangement is to stoj) at
every white man's camp or settlement down to Ruby. I could have
gone on a better boat with its owner, but they charge here $15 a day,
with " keep," and twice the amount for the return of the man and
the boat, which is beyond my resources.
Tanana — Ruby. The river is clearer than the Tanana, and much
broader. It is a great fine stream and its shores, while mostly still
low on the left, on the right rise here and there into moderate loess
46 ANTHROPOLOGICAL. SUEVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 46
bluffs, far beyond which are seen higher elevations and bluish for-
ested mountains. All covei-ed with poplar and spruce.
2.15 p. m. Wind has so increased that the scow bumps and squeaks
and there is danger of opening its seams. Therefore side to the
beach and make lunch — a roast of fat pork, oversalted, canned
spinach, dry bread, and black coffee. All on a simple, old, but effici-
ent little stove in the boat. Our companion, the oculist, rides not
with us but in a nice little green canoe with a plaything of a gasoline
motor fastened to the backboard, but we all eat and sleep together.
But a few small Indian camps seen, and no white man's house.
Soon after lunch, however, approach "The Old Station," where
there are a few Indian houses, and later a white man's place (Bur-
chell's). Stop at the latter. Learn that we are 20 miles from
Tanana and on a 5-mile-long channel. There are here 15 to 40 feet
high loesslike (silt) bluffs with a flat on the top, which latter
was from far back one of the most im'portant sites of the Indians
of these regions. Mr. Burchell and his partner kindly take me back,
with their better boat, to the main old site. Many old gi-aves there,
a few still marked. Traces of dugouts (birch-bark lined), houses,
caches, etc., from Burchell's place to old main site. Important
place that deserves to be thoroughly excavated, though this wiU
entail no little work. Site was of the choicest, dominant, healthy.
Connects by a trail, still traceable, with the Koyukuk region.
There are said to be no traces of pottery in any of these parts.
But average to very large stone axes are washed out occasionally
from the banks, and other articles are dug out (long ivory spear,
bone scraper, etc.). Promise of bones, etc., by Mr. Burchell.
One hundred miles more to Ruby. Near 8 p. m. start again — sun
still high, little wind — endeavor to get to the " bone yard," a great
bank bearing fossils. Fine clean scenery, flat on left, flat to elevated
with grey-blue mountainous beyond on right. Water now calm and
we make good progress. Very few camps — dogs on the beach, fish-
drying racks a little farther, then a little log cabin and perhaps a
tent, with somewhere near by in the river the inevitable fish wheel,
turning slowly with the current.
Had %upper at Burchell's ; white fish, boiled potato, coffee, some
canned greens.
Scenery in spots precious, virginal, fiat at the river, elevated be-
hind, foreground covered by the lighter green of poplars and birches,
with upright, somber, dark spruce behind. Sun on the right, half
moon on the left, and river like a big glassy lake, just rippling a
little here and there. Cooler — need a coat. On right, getting
gradually nearer the mountains.
HEDLiOKA] WEITER'S TRIP OX YUKON 47
Near 10 p. m. Snn still above horizon. On left a long (several
miles), mostly wooded, but here and there denuded, palisadelike
bank, apparentl}' 200-400 feet hiirh — the " graveyard."
Monday, June 21. Just at sunset last night — after 10 oclock —
came to the " bone yard " bank — a long curving line of loess bluffs
100 to 300 feet high, steep right to ^Yater's edge, riven by many ra-
vines. Lowest third (approximately) light compact loess; then a
thick layer of river sand (stratified more or less) and small gravel,
then from one-third to nearly two-fifths of darker loess. In spots
quite dark, frozen, but on surface melting, " running," also tumbling
in smaller or larger masses. Wherever darker there emanates from
it and spreads far out over the river a decided mummylike smell.
Too late to photograph from boat, and no other place available.
Also impracticable to explore with any detail — would take several
days and be a difficult work. The bluffs become gradually lower
downstream. Xo bones seen from boat, but mostly were not near
enough to discern. A remarkable formation, in many ways, and
in need of masterly study as well as description.
Night on a low gravelly and pebbly beach. Many mosquitoes.
Mosquito netting found bad — sides too short (gave directions, but
they were disregarded) and mesh not small enough. In a short time
impossible to stay under. Supplemented by old netting of Mr.
Peake, who will sleep under his canvas in the boat ; but the old dirty
net has holes in it and the mosquitoes keep on coming through the
two. Fighting them imtil some time after midnight, then under all
my things — netting, blanket, clothes — find some rest, sleeping until
4.30 a. m. After that — full day. of course^sleep impossible. The
"optician," who slept well under proper Alaska netting, gets up,
wakes my man; we both get up, shake, roll up bedding, have a cat-
wash, then breakfast, and at G.30 off once more along the beautiful
but not hospitable river.
Inquiry at a local white man's cabin about fossils and Indian
things negative — has paid no attention, and fossil bones that he
sometimes comes across generally not in good state of preservation.
Eight bank now hilly, with greater hills and then mountains be-
hind. Warm, river smooth, just a light breeze. How puny we are
in all this greatness.
A lot of trouble develops with the engine to-day — bad pump.
Will not get to Ruby until evening. Meat, on which I must sit
occasionally, begins to smell, and there are numerous horseflies,
probably attracted by the smell.
Four p. m. Visit Kokrines, on a high bank, native village, ceme-
tery. Photograph some natives, are good natured, talk pidgin Eng-
lish. Clearly considerable old Eskimo admixture, but the substratum
48 ANTHROPOLOGICALi SURVEY IN ALASKA [bth. ann. 46
and main portion is Indian. All kind and cheerful here, glad to
have pictures taken. Only white man is a " road-house " keeper ;
i. e., storekeeper. Store, however, poorly stocked, probably in all not
over $200 worth of goods. " Optician," who is hoggish, has head-
ache, but eats and drinks all he can nevertheless. " Jeweler " re-
paired his pump, and so we are once more on the way — 35 miles more
to Ruby. No trace of any relics at Kokrines.
River now a mile wide, with many " slews " (side channels,
sloughs), and many low, flat, forested islands. Mountains to right,
higher, traces of snow. Smoke wall from forest fire advancing from
the west — now also smell. Islands beautiful, fresh colors and clean —
light grass on border, then green and grayish poplars, birches, and
alder, from among which rise the blacldsh green spruces. Little
native fishing camps a mile or two apart, right bank — on left wilder-
ness of flats, as usual.
A few miles above Ruby conditions change — ^liigh bluffs (rocky)
now on left, flat on right side. Ruby, from a distance and after the
loneliness of the day, looks quite a little town on the left bank, at
the base of the higher ground.
Ruby
June 22-23. Our approach to Ruby was very modest. With
Mr. Peake paid off, we just sided against and tied to the bank, on
which are the lowest houses of the village, and carried out my boxes
and bedding on the bank. There two or three men were idly watch-
ing our arrival. I asked about the local marshal, to whom I had a
note, and had my things carried to the combined post office and hotel.
In almost no time I meet Mr. Thomas H. Long, the marshal, become
acquainted with the people about, tell my mission, and begin to col-
lect. It does not take long for one properly introduced to be thor-
oughly and warmly at home in Alaska. The first specimen I get is a
fine fossilized mammoth molar. It is brought to me by Albert
Verkinik, who was about to depart for some mines, but went back to
get the tooth. And he asks no compensation.
The parts of two days spent at Ruby were quite profitable. Visit-
ing, and in the jail, were several Indians who could be noted and
photographed. At the old jail there were two skulls of Indians
that were donated. The teacher had two of the characteristic Yukon
two-grooved axes. The postmaster, Mr. H. E. Clarke, gave a col-
lection of fre,sh animal skulls. Mr. Louis Pilback donated two mam-
moth molars, found 2 miles up the Yukon on Little Melozey Creek,
about 8 feet deep, in the muck right over the gravel. Mrs. Monica
Silas brought me a good old stone knife. Several of the men took
me down to the beach to see a damaged fossil elephant skull, also to
HBDLieKA] WEITER'S TRIP ON YUKON 49
see some fossiliferous workings above the town. Another party took
me a few miles up and across the river to see an Indian camp and
near by some old burials. The collections were sent through parcel
post; and the evening before departure I gave a lecture to an atten-
tive and respectful audience.
The town itself, however, is now a mere damaged and crumbling
shell of what it was in the heyday of its glory, during the gold rush.
Many of the frame dwellings and stores are empty ; the board side-
walks are rickety and with big holes; and in the air is a general lack
of impetus.
June 23. Failing to find another suitable boat, I once more made
an arrangement to go farther down the river with Mr. Peake and
his friend. Peake's boat and scow were not much to look at, and
the troubles with the engine, and with its owner's raw swearing at
times, were somewhat trying; but for my purpose the outfit did well
enough, and I was treated very well and given all needed oppor-
tunity to examine what was of importance on the banks. I was
quite sorry when eventually we had to part company, and I know
Mr. Peake has not forgotten my quest, for I heard of his talking
about it to partie^, with whom I was very glad to come in contact,
on the Kuskokwim.
June 23. The sunny evening of my second busy day at Ruby,
near 10 p. m., Peake unexpectedly comes to the hotel to tell me he
will be ready to start to-night, on account of quiet water. His
wash " is being ironed " and will be ready soon. The marshal comes
in, calls the prisoners to take down my baggage, and at 10.15, after
true, hearty good-byes, I am once more in the old scow. Then Peake
goes for his wash, with an Indian woman, and does not come until
near 11. River peaceful, sun shortly set, sky somewhat cloudy, for-
est fire on opposite shore below still smoking a great deal. Leaving
good people at Ruby, who promise to help in the future. It is
getting much cooler after a pretty warm day. Will lie on the hard
boxes and try to get a little sleep.
Thursday, June 24. We went long into the night, then stopped
at a lone cabin. Up timely, but slow start — it is 10.10 a. m. before
we go. The time gained at night lost now — bad habits. Breeze up
the river, occasionally strong, but not severe.
The cabin was the " Dutchman's," or Meyer's. He came out at
1 a. m. to meet us, at the bark of his big dogs, a good-heai'ted,
weather-seared prospector, fisherman, and trapper of about 40, alone
with his huskies. Asked me into his little log hut, prepared a place
for my bedding on a frame, burned powder against the mosquitoes,
brought out from cool " cellar " a bottle of root beer he brews, and
then we went to sleep. But dogs kept waking us and Meyer went
50 ANTHROPOLOGIC.Uli SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 46
out several times to qtiiet them. Fall asleep at 3.20 and oblivious
imtil near 7. Meyer forces on me six bottles of root beer. I leave
him some prescriptions, and taking my bed roll we go down to the
boat. M}^ men still sleeping, as I expected. And then slow awaken-
ing, breakfast, and late starting.
Meyer never saw any Indian bones or stones, but promises cheer-
fully to watch for them hereafter and to make inquiries. Of course,
he also, like so many in these lands, tells of a " prospect " of a gold
find, and is quite confident he'll " make good." As usual, also, it
is a " lead " that was " lost " and he believes he has found it. And
all the time the gold is inside, not outside, of these hunters of the
yellow star.
Hills on the right again; flat islands, banks, etc., on the left.
Meyer's is 18 miles down from Ruby, right bank. About 5 miles
farther down on the slopes of the right bank is a pretty little In-
dian graveyard (pi. 1, 6), and a little lower down there are three
now empty Indian huts.
Hills and mountains seen also now beyond the wide flats of the
left bank. The hills on right, along which we pass, are more or less
forested, but often just bushy and grassy. They' rise to about 600
to 700 feet and the slopes are seldom steep. Along their base there
are many elevated platforms, low swells, and nooks, that could have
served of old — as they serve here and there now — for native habita-
tion, though only few could have accommodated larger villages.
Pass an Indian camp — the inevitable staked dogs; a swimming
boy — first being seen bathing in the open.
Whiskey Creek next. Sixty-two dogs, all along the bank, and
each one-half or more in his own cooling hole ; holes they dig down
to near the frozen ground. A settler, and two Indians — a photo-
graph. No relics or bones now, but will watch ; promise also to save
some animal skulls, etc.
Twelve o'clock. Off again. Day better now, less squally, warm.
Hills above and below lower and earthy — loess, at least much of
it. The right shore is all along sunnier, higher, more beautiful, and
more open to wind (less mosquitoes). These are the reasons, doubt-
less, why it was of old and is still the favored side for habitations
by natives as well as whites.
Just before reaching " Old Lowden," overtaken by a rather crazily
driven small motor boat with four young Indians, who hand us a
crude message for the storekeeper at Galena, telling him that a baby
in the camp is to die to-night. I offer to see the baby. Find a boy
infant about one year or a little over, ill evidently with bronchitis.
Father and mother, each about 30, sit over it brooding in dumb
grief, each on one side. Respond not to my presence, and barely so
to my questions. And when I begin to tell to the fellow who inter-
HRDLifKA] WRITER'S TRIP ON YUKON 51
prets and is some relative that the baby need not die, and what to
do — I note that he is somewhat under the influence of liquor and a
little flushed — to my dismay he begins to rant against me as a doctor
and against the Government, and wants me perforce, seemingly, to
say that the child is going to die and die to-night. There are two
guns around and I almost anticipate his catching hold of one. The
gist of the piecemeal talk is that they believe I am a Government
doctor, who ought to stay four or five days with them and take over
the child's treatment, and yet the fellow insists that the child will
die before next moining. I do not know what they would say or
do to the doctor if he undertook to stay and the child died — or if it
recovered. It is dismal. They have the idea that the " Government "
is obliged to do all sorts of things for them, without being clear
just what, and that it does not do them. They believe, and try to say
so, that I am sent and paid by the Government to treat them.
Probably they have heai'd about the Government medical party that
is to examine conditions along the river this summer, and think that
I do not want to do or give what is necessary. I give all the possi-
ble advice, but there is plainly no inclination to follow it. I offer
some medicine ; they sneer at medicine. Even the father says he does
not understand it or want it. They are all surly and in a dangerous,
stupid mood. So there is nothing left but to go away as well as
one may.
On way down the bank a woman is seen cleaning and cutting
fish — knife steel, with wood or ivory handle, of the Chinese and
Eskimo type. A porcupine, bloated, and with flies and maggots on
it already about the nose, mouth, and eyes, lies next to the woman,
and its turn will probably come next after the fish.
Have modest lunch — canned peai's, a bit of cold bacon left from
morning, a bit of cheese, and coffee; and start once more onward.
So much beauty here, and such human discord.
3.30 p. m. Passing on right bank a line of bluffs, wholly of loess,
about 200 feet high and approximately 4 miles long, and as if shaven
with knife from top to water's edge. After that flats only on both
sides, with but one hill far ahead of us.
Motor trouble again — same old pump; but not for long; in half
an hour on again. A steamer upward passes us — like a stranger, and
power.
Galena
A little town (village), on a flat promontory. An old consump-
tive storekeeper — no knowledge of any old implements or skeletal
remains. Lowden village moved here due to mine opposite and better
site. About 10 Indian houses here; inhabitants now mostly in fish-
ing camps.
52 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SUEVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ann. is
From Galena down, low shores and islands as on the Tanana, as
far as can be seen, with mountains, grayish blue, in far distance
(and only occasional glimpses). River never less than three- fourths
of a mile and sometimes together with its sloughs and islands several
miles broad. Some geese; occasional rabbit seen on land; otherwise
but little life. First gulls.
Tlie Indians at Ruby and Galena show here and there an Eskimoid
type, with the younger nearly all mix bloods (with whites). Full
bloods of same type as all along the river, brachycephalic, low to
moderate high vault of head, moderate to medium (rarely above)
stature, medium brown, noses not prominent, concavo-convex, moder-
ately convex or nearly straight, Indian cast of the face, but quite a
few more or less Eskimoid. Not very bright.
Sit in the bottom of the scow, in front, before the stove and make
notes. When we stop, jump out to tie the boat; when leaving, push
it off. Getting sunburnt dark. Forgetting once again that I have
a stomach or any other organ. Only sleep, never fully, much less
than ought to; but even that is somehow much more bearable here
than it would be at home.
6.45 p. m. Suddenly, after a turn, confronted with a steep rocky
promontory about 500 feet high — stratified mud rocks. On side,
high above, a tall white cross; learn later an Indian murdered a
bishop here. A little farther, on a flat below the slope, a small settle-
ment. A remarkable landmark, known as the Bishop's Rock. After-
wards again flats, but some more elevated than before to the left.
River like a great looking-glass. Same character of vegetation and
colors as farther above, but details varied.
At Ruby had made a genuine, effective. Alaska mosquito netting,
and so now feel quite independent of the pest ; also have two bottles
of mosquito oil, which helps. Forunately on the water we are not
bothered.
Toward night reach Koyukuk River, and later on. Koyukuk village,
a pleasant row of houses, white and native, on a high bank. Here,
at last, pass one good night, sleeping under good mosquito netting
in the house and on the bed of an Italian trader. Also had good sup-
per of salmon, and good breakfast of bacon and eggs, and so feel
rested and strong.
Friday, June 25. But in the morning the sky is overcast and every
now and then there is a loose shower. Of course my boon comjjanions
are not ready again until long after 9 o'clock, and then the engine will
not go again, so a longer delay. They were inclined, in fact, to
" lay over," but I urged them on. But they are detei-rained if it rains
a bit more to "tie to" somewhere. Fortunately there is no wind.
About 3 miles below Koyukuk and its flats, the high bluffs with
hrdliCka]
WRITHE'S TRIP ON YUKON 53
Steep more or less shavedlike barren slopes recommence. A gloomy
day.
About 7 miles down, after a large rocky promontory, a small grave-
yard on the side of a hill, with a little native camp about a third of a
mile beyond.
10.'±5 a. m. Beautiful wooded great hills, 400 to 800 feet high, all
along the right bank again, with large V-shaped valleys between. A
fine, rounded, slightly more than usually elevated island ahead. Left
banks flat.
Sun coming out a little; cool, but not unpleasant. No more
showers, river smooth, boat making time. Blue hazy mountains far
to the left front.
Hills to right rocky, strata horizontal to warped, mud rocks, broad
banks of sandy, gravelly or mucky materials, not consolidated, be-
tween hard strata.
Now and then a small Indian camp, usually two or three tents,
Indians, dogs, boats; some drying fish (not much).
11.00 a. m. Another isolated little graveyard, right slope, near an
old camp.
There is no possibility now of excavating any of these graveyards, for
the Indians are in unpleasant disposition toward the Government for
various reasons. But such a place as that near Burchell's could be
excavated as soon as conditions impi'ove. Also that above Ruby and
another opposite and just below Ruby. There are no longer any
superstructures left at these (or but traces) , and the graves, as seen
above Ruby, are near (within 2 feet of) the surface.
No trace or indication of anything older than the double-gi-ooved
ax culture has thus far been seen anywhere in the valley ; and large
stretches of present banks are quite barren.
As we approach Nulato the horizon before us becomes hilly and
mountainous. The sun is now fully out and its waimth is very
pleasant. Pass an Indian woman paddling a canoe ; later an Indian
family going upstream in a motor boat. Most of these Indians
possess a motor boat of some sort, and know how to run it, though
it is not in their nature to be overcareful.
NuLATO
(PI. 1, 6)
Arrive midday. Quite a village, as usual along the water front
on a high bank. Large fancy modern surface burial ground with
brightly painted boxes and flying flags on a hill to the right. Met
by local marshal and doctor ; my things are taken to a little hospital.
Natives here have poor reputation, but now said to be better. Boys
nearly all mix bloods. Several men and women show Eskimo type.
54 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [bth. ANN. 48
but majority are Indian to somewhat Eskimoid. Soon find they are
not very well disposed — want pay for everything, and much pay.
Have a few specimens, but to obtain anything from them is difficult.
Have been spoiled.
A visit with the marshal to the site of old Nulato on the proxi-
mate point; nothing there, just a rabbit's skull and a lot of mos-
quitoes. Photograph old graveyard (that of old Nulato), on the
distal point beyond the creek.
Mr. Steinhauser, trader, of Czech descent, helpful and kind. But
nothing further to do here. Steamer that was to be here to-night
or to-morrow will not arive, just learned, until Tuesday (this is
Friday) ; and so must engage a little gasoline boat to the next station,
Kaltag, 40 miles down the river.
Sleep under my new netting in the hospital. In the morning, after
Ijarting with doctor and marshal, start 8.30 a. m. Boat little, shaky,
run by a half-breed boy of about 18. My old scow with Peake and
his companion will stay a day longer. Partly cloudy, warm.
Pass flats, and come again to similar shaved-oil bluffs like yester-
day. We are now running close to the shore so that I can see
everything. Flowers, but not many or many varieties.
9.50 a. m. Pass (about 8 miles from Nulato) a few burials (old
boxes) on right slope. (PI. 1, c.) Indian camp about one-half
mile farther, and a few old abandoned huts and caches.
Everything on and along thei river about the same as yesterday,
except in little details. Sky clouded: light clouds, however. The
boy with me has had good schooling (for a native) and is a good
informer. But there is little of archeological or anthropological
interest hereabouts. (PI. 2, a.)
12.10 p. m. Another rounded island ahead of us; far beyond it
grayish-blue hills and mountains. Six miles more to Kaltag. But
little life here — a few small birds, a lone robin, a lone gull.
Kaltag
1.00 p. m. Kaltag in view — a small modern village on right bank,
less than half the size of Nulato; a nearly compact row of log and
plank houses. Nothing of any special interest seen from distance,
and but little after landing. The old village used to be somewhat
higher up the river.
There is an old abandoned .site also just opposite the present
Kaltag. Another site, " Klenkakaiuh," is, I am told, in the Kaiuh
slough south of Kaltag, in a straight line about 10 miles, but no one
there; and several other old villages in that region along that
slough — same Indians as those of Kaltag. All of Kaltag go there
on occasions, but do not live there permanently any more.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE I
i."
m^^w^
a, "Old Minto" on the Tanana. Indian village. (A. H.. 192fi)
::-::. ^SB^
6. Present Ntilato and its cemetery (on hill to right of village) from some distance up the river.
(A. n., 192(i)
c. The Greyling River site, right banlc. 22 miles ahove Anvik; site and graveyard (male skeleton)
from top of knoll. (A. II., 1926)
BLIREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 2
a, View on the Yukon from above Kaltag. (A. H., 192(j)
b, Indian burial ground, Middle Yukon. (A. n., 192G)
c, Anvik, from the mission. (A. U., iy2(ij
iirdliCka] WRITER'S TRIP ON YUKON 55
At Kaltag Eskimoid features already predominate and some of
those seen are fully like Eskimo.
There is a tradition of an Asiatic (Chukchee) attempt at Kaltag
once.
Later in the afternoon photogi'aph some natives and go with
Mr. Miiller, the storekeeper, and Mr. McLeod, the intelligent local
teacher, on the latter's boat, " hunting " along the banks up the
stream. Meet an old Indian (Eskimo type) paddling a birch-bark
canoe, said to be the only canoe of that sort now on the Yukon.
About three-fourths of a mile above the village see caved bank and
find a skull and bones — " split " old burial of a woman.
A canoe coming, so we all go farther up the beach, pretending to
examine stones. It is only the boy who brought me, however, going
home with some planks, and he grins knowingly.
After that we locate three exposed coffins, two undisturbed and
covered with sod. These two, for fear of irritating the natives, are
left. But the third is wrapped only in birch bark. It was a power-
ful woman. With her a bone tool and a white man's spoon. With
the burial that had tumbled out of the bank there were large blue
and gray beads and three iron bracelets — reserved by the teacher.
I gather all the larger bones and we put them temporarily in a
piece of canvas. It is hard to collect all — the men are apprehensive —
it might be dangerous for them if detected. Everything smoothed
as much as jDossible, and we go across the river to examine two fish
nets belonging to the trader. One of these is found empty ; but the
other contains five large king salmon, 1.5 to 20 pounds each, three
cirowned, two still alive. The latter are hooked, hoisted to the edge
of the boat, killed with a club, and, full of blood, thrown into the
boat — great, stout, fine fish. To secrete our other findings from the
natives the storekeeper gets a large bundle of grass and ties it to
my package. We shall be bringing " medicine."
Arrive home, only to learn that against our information the river
boat has left Tanana on schedule time, is now above Koyukuk. and is
expected to arrive at Kaltag before 8 p. m. Hurriedly pack, a few
more photographs, supper, and the smoke of the steamer begins to
be visible. In a little while she is at the bank, my boxes are brought
down, a greeting with old friends on the boat — the same boat
(Jacobs) on which I went from Xenana to Tanana — and we start off
for Anvik.
Mr. Miiller. the trader at Kaltag, German by birth, has a young,
fairly educated Eskimo wife, a good cook, housekeeper, and mother
of one child. The child is an interesting white-Eskimo blend.
In his .store Mr. Miiller showed me a good-sized heavy bowl of red
stone with a figure seated in a characteristic way near one end. The
specimen was said to have come from an old site on the Kaiuh and
56 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ann. 46
is of the same type as that at the museum in Juneau and the two
in the east, one at the Museum of the American Indian, New York,
and the other at the University Museum, Philadelphia. Regret-
tably Mr. Miiller would not part with the specimen. (See also p. 34.)
The natives of Kaltag, .so far as seen, are more Eskimoid than
those of any of the other settlements farther up the river.
Fine evening; sit with a passenger going to Nome, until late.
Learn that the boat to St. Michael is waiting for this boat and will
go right on — not suitable for my work. Also we are to stop but a
few minutes at Anvik, where I am to meet Doctor Chapman, the
missionary.
Sunday, June 27. About 5 a. m. arrive in the pretty cove of
Anvik. Received on the bank by Doctor Chapman, the head of the
local Episcopalian mission and school, and also the Anvik post-
master. The doctor for the present is alone, his wife and daughter
having gone to Fairbanks, and so he is also the cook and everything.
In a few minutes, with the help of some native boys, I am with
my boxes in Doctor Chapman's house, and after the boat has left
and the necessities connected with what she left attended to we
have breakfast. I am soon made to feel as much as possible " at
home," and we have a long conversation. Then see a numlier of
chronic patients and incurables; attend a bit lengthy service in
Doctor Chapman's near-by little cliurch; have a lunch with the
ladies at the school; visit the hill graveyard. They have reburied
all the older remains and there is nothing left. Attend an afternoon
service and give a talk to the congregation of about half a dozen
whites and two dozen more or less Eskimoid Indians on the Indians
and our endeavors; and then do some writing, ending the day by
going out for about a mile and a half along the banks of the Anvik
River, looking in vain for signs of something older, human or
animal. (PI. 2, c.)
There are many and bad gnats here just now — how bad I only
learned later, when I found my whole body covered with patches
of their bites ; and also many mosquitoes, which proved particularly
obnoxious during the lunch. As the doctor is alone, the three excel-
lent white ladies of the school, matron and teachers, invited us, as
already mentioned, to lunch with them. We had vegetable soup,
a bit of cheese, two crackers each, a piece of cake, and tea. But I
chose an outlandish chair the seat of which was made of strips of
hide with spaces between ; and from the beginning of the lunch to its
end there was a struggle between the proprieties of the occasion and
the mosquitoes that kept on biting me through the spaces in the seat.
Chairs of this ty{>e, and I finally told that to the ladies to explain
my seeming restlessness during the meal, should be outlawed in
Alaska.
hedliCka] WRITER'S TRIP ON YUKON 57
The Anvik People
The Anvik people, it will be recalled, were the first Yukon natives
seen by a white man. They were discovered in 1834 by Glazunof,
and since then have occupied the same site, located favorably on a
point between the Anvik and the Yukon Rivers. They belonged
to the Inkalik tribe, a name given to them, according to Zagoskin,
by the coast people and signifying " lousy," from the fact that they
never cut their hair, which in consequence, presumably, harbored
some parasites. Their village was the lowest larger settlement of the
Indians on the Yukon, the Eskimo commencing soon after.
The Anviks to-day are clearly seen to be a hybrid lot. There are
unmistakable signs of a prevalent old Eskimo mixture. The men
are nearly all more or leas Eskimoid. and even the head is not infre-
quently narrower, fairly long, jaws much developed. The women,
however, show the Eskimo type less, and the children in a still smaller
measure — they are much more Indian. Yet even some women and
an occasional child are Eskimoid — face flat, long, lower jaw high,
cheek bones prominent forward (like welts on each side of the nose),
whole iDliysiognomy recalling the Eskimo. The more Indianlike
types I'esemble closely those of the ujjper Yukon. There is percep-
tible, too, some mixture with whites, particularly in the young.
To bed about 11. Attic warm and window can not be opened
because of the insects. Sleep not very good; some mosquitoes in
room anyway. Wake up after 3 and just begin to doze off again
when the doctor gets up. About 4 he puts his shoes on—one can
hear every sound throughout the frame house, even every yawn —
and then goes to the kitchen where there soon comes the rattling of
pots. At 4.30 comes up to bid me good morning and ask me if I am
ready to get up and have breakfast. A man with a boat is to be
ready at 6 to take me to some old site. So a little after 5 I get up,
shave, dress and go down. Another night to make up for sometime,
somewhere.
We finish breakfast and the doctor goes to look for the man, but
everything deadlike, no one stirring anywhere. So I pack my stone
specimens from the river above and the bones from Kaltag, etc. It
is 8 a. m. and then at last Harry Lawrence, our man, appears —
having understood to come about that time — and before long we
start, in a good-sized boat, up the Yukon.
Day mostly cloudy but fairly good ; no wind. Must use mosquito
mixture all the time, even after I get on boat, but they quit later.
Am standing on the back of the boat against and over the " house "
over it — inside things shake too much and I can not see enough.
Passing by fish wheels — heaps of fish in their boxes — some just
being caught and dumped in. Picturesque bluffs passed yesterday
88253°— 30 5
58 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IX ALASKA [eth. axn. m
seen to be of volcanic stone, near basalt, not granite, with indication
of minerals. Passing close to vertical cliffs of fissured and frag-
mented rocks 200 to 500 feet high^dangerous. Consolidated vol-
canic ashes with inclosure of many bowlders — fine lessons in geologiy.
Slides of soil and vegetation here and there. Large spruces and
altogether a richer vegetation since this particular rock region was
reached. There was in fact a plain line of demarcation in the vegeta-
tion where the rocks changed.
Sleepy. Afraid to doze and fall off. so go inside. But there the
motor thumps and shakes too much for a nap to be possible.
About 12 miles upstream from Anvik, on the north bank, the min-
eralized rocks and tufa suddenly cease, to be superseded by a line,
several miles long, of sheared-off loess bluffs about 200 feet high.
Here the vegetation changes very perceptibly. Two mammoth jaws
obtained from these deposits have a few years ago been given to Mr.
Gilmore, of the United States National Museum.
22 to 23 miles up the river, north bank, a fine large platform and an
old native site. Many signs still of pit and tunnel houses. A little
farther upstream a hill with abandoned burials. Excavate a grave
on a promontory over the river — not very old — wet and not much
left of soft parts, but succeed in getting the skeleton. Fine middle-
aged adult, somewhat Eskimoid, about typical for this region.
Carry down in a bag, dry on the beach gravel. Lunch on beach;
cheese, bread, coffee. The site is known as that of the Greyling River.
(PI. 2, i.)
Start back a little after 3. Very warm day. River smooth. Sky
looks like there might be a storm later.
Hear of pottery — 40 j'ears ago it was still made at Anvik. Was
black, of poor quality. The women used to put feathers in the clay
" to make the pots stronger." When buried it soon rotted and fell
to pieces. In shapes and otherwise it was much like the Eskimo
pottery. Its decorations consisted of nail or other impressions, in
simple geometrical designs, particidarly about the rim. It was
rather gross, but better pieces did occur, though rarely.
It is becoming plain that there are no known traces of any really
old settlements along the present banks of the Yukon ; nothing be-
yond a few hundred years at most. If there was anything older no
external signs of it have been noted, and no objects of it have ever
been found. It seems certain that the stone imijlements thus far seen
were used and made by the pre-Russian and probably even later
Indians. They all belong to the polished-stone variety. No " paleo-
lithic " type of instrument has yet been seen.
It is also evident that the Eskimo admixture and doubtless also cul-
tural influence extended far up the liver. The farther down the
HHDLlcKA] WRITER'S TRIP OST YUKON 59
river, particularly from Ruby, the more the Eskimoid physical char-
acteristics become marked and the Indian diluted, until at Anvik
most, or at least much, physical and cultural, is clearly Eskimo.
Have further learned quite definitely that native villages on the
Yukon were seldom if ever stable. Have been known (as at Kaltag
and elsewhere) to have changed location as much as three times
within the last few scores of years, though in general they keep to the
same locality in a larger sense of the word. Anvik alone seems to
have remained on the old site since the advent of the whites.
Anvik. Tuesday, June 29. Last night gave talk on evolution to
white teachers, etc. Quite appreciated, regardless of previous state
of mentality.
Caught up with some sleep, even though my attic room was so
hot that the gum from the spruce boards was dropping down on me.
Good breakfast with the doctor — canned grapefruit, corn flakes with
canned milk, bread toasted in the oven, and coffee. .
Pack up my Greyling skeleton — much drier to-da_y — and dispatch
by parcel post, through the doctor as postmaster.
Photograph school children and village. Gnats bad and have to
wear substantial underclothing (limbs are already full of dark red
itching blotches where bitten by them) though it is a hot day again.
The full-blood and especially the slightly mixed children would
be fine, not seldom lovely, were they fully healthy; but their lungs
are often weak or there is some other tubercular trouble.
The color of the full-bloods, juvenile and others, on the body, is
invariably submedium to nea^ medium brown, the exposed parts
darker; and the chest test (mine) for full-bloodedness holds true.
The young are often good looking ; the old rather ugly.
All adults fishing now. the fish running much since a day or
two: all busy at the fish camps, not man}', in the daytime especially,
about the mission.
At noon air fills with haze — soon recognized as smoke from a fire
which is located at only about a mile, and that with the wind, from
the mission. We all hasten to some of the houses in the brush —
find enough clearing about them for safety. The school here burned
two years ago and so all are apprehensive. Natives from across
the river hasten to their caches. Luckily not much wind.
After lunch children come running in saying they hear thunder;
one girl saying in their usual choppy, picturesque way, " Outside
is thunder"; another smaller one says, "It hollers above.'' Before
long a sprinkle and then gradually more and more rain until there
is a downpour followed by several thunderclaps (as with us) and
then some more rain. That, of course, stops the fire from ap-
proaching closer and all is safe. Such storms are rare occurrences
hereabouts.
60 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. axn. 46
My limhs are a sight from the gnats. Must apply Aseptinol.
Worse than any mosquitoes; like the worst chiggers. Poisonous —
some hemolytic substance, which causes also much itching, especially
at night.
Arrange to leave to-morrow. Good people these, unpretentious,
but white through and through.
Mr. Lawrence, the local trader, who with his boy was with me
yesterday, is going to take nie to an old site down the river and then
to Holy Cross. Donates a fine old ivory arrow point from the site
mentioned. Doctor Chapman gives three old dishes and two stone
axe.s — haft on one of recent manufacture. The natives seem to have
nothing of this nature, and no old site is near. The nearest is
Bonasila, where we go to-morrow.
This is truly a fish country. Along the placid Anvik River fish
smell everywhere — dead fish on shore here and there, or fish eggs,
or offal. •
Wednesday, June 30. Hazy and cool. 52° F. Take leave with
friend. Doctor Chapman, then at school, and leave 8 a. m. for
Bonasila.
The gnat pest was bad this morning — could hardly load my bag-
gage; had to apply the smear again, but this helps only where
put and for a time only.
BOXASILA
Close to 10 a. m. arrive at the Bonasila site. Not much —
just a low bank of the big river, not over 4 feet high in front, and
a higher rank grass-covered flat with a' little stream on the left and a
hill on the right. But the flat is full of fossae of old barabras
(pit and tunnel dwellings), all wood on surface gone; and there is a
cemetery to the right and behind, on a slo^ie.
Examine beach and banks minutely until 12. Modest lunch — two
sandwiches, a bit of cake and tea — and then begin to examine the
shore again. Soon after arrival finding bones of animals, some
partly fossilized ; beaver, deer, caribou, bear, fox, dog, etc., all
species still living in Alaska, as found later, though no more in the
immediate neighborhood.
Mosquitoes and gnats bad — use lot of oil. Begin soon to find
remarkably primitive looking stone tools, knockers, scrapers, etc.
Crawl through washed-down trees and brush. Many stones on the
beach show signs of chipping or use. Very crude — a protolithic in-
dustry; but a few pieces better and .showing polished edge. Also
plenty of fragments of pottery, not seldom decorated (indented).
Make quite a collection. And then, to cap it, find parts of human
skeleton, doubtless washed out from the bank. Much missing, but a
HBDLiiKA] WBITEB'S TRIP ON YUKON 61
good bit recovered, and that bit is very striking. (See p. 156.) Also
a cut bone (clean cut, as if by a sharp knife) in situ in the mud
of the bank, and a little birch-bark basket still filled with mud from
the bank, with later a larger basket of same nature in situ; could
save but a piece. Conditions puzzling. Was there an older site
under one more recent ?
2 p. m. About 2 p. m. go to the cemetery. About a dozen burials
recognizable. A pest of mosquitoes and gnats — Lawrence soon
bleeds over face and neck, while I keep them off only by frequent
smearing. He soon has to smear, too. Open five graves — placed
above ground, wooden (split and no nails) boxes covered with earth
and sod. Skeletons all in contracted position, head to the east and
lying on right side. Some in poor condition. Three women, one
man, one child. Gnats swarm in the moss and the graves, and with
the smears, here and there a trickle of blood, the killed pests and
the dust, we soon look lovely. But there is enough of interest.
With each burial appears something — with the man two large blue
Russian beads; first woman — a pottery lamp (or dish), iron knife;
with the second two fire sticks, stone objects (sharj)eners), partly
decayed clay dish; with the third, a Russian bead and a birch-bark
snuffbox; with the child a "killed" (?) glass bottle of old form
and an iron flask; in the grave of an infant (bones gone) a Russian
bead. A grave of a child — bones burned.
6.15 p. m. Rest must be left. Lawrence may be enabled to do
some work in the fall. Leave 6.15; carry quite a lot — in sacks, gaso-
line cans, lard cans. Wonder how I shall be able to send things from
Holy Cross, and what next. Cool, sky overcast whole day.
Holt Cross
Thursday, Julj' 1. Slept on the floor of a little store last night
at Ghost Creek. The Catholic mission at Holy Cross, with all sorts
of room, about li^ miles down, and where, though late and tired, I
visited Father Jules Jette, a renowned student of the dialects of the
Yukon Indians, did not offer to accommodate me, and the trader in
their village could only offer me a " bunk " in one little room with
three other people. So after 10 p. m. we went down to the " Ghost
Creek," where I was gladly given a little corner in the store of Alec
Richardson. Of course there were whining dogs outside, right next
to the store on both sides, and they sang at times (or howled) like
wolves, whose blood they seem to carry. And a cat got closed in with
me and was pulling dried fish about, which she chewed, most of the
night it seemed. So there was not much sleep until from about 5
a. m. to 8.30, after the cat was chased out and the dogs got weary.
Then no breakfast till near 9.30.
62 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [BTH. ANN. 46
Went to mission again to see Father Jette — he is not of the mis-
sion— a fine old Frenchman and scliolar. He was not responsibls for
last night and anyway I was spoiled farther up the river. His
meritorious work deserves to be known and published.
After a verj' simple lunch packed yesterday's collections from the
Bonasila site — five boxes. The parcel post here alone will cost
$20.40. How odd that the transportation of the collections of a
Government institution must be paid for from the little appropria-
tion received for scientific work to another department of the same
Government.
It is cloudy, drizzly, cold. Am endeavoring to leave to-morrow,
but they want $35 to the next station, and the boat does not leave
for St. Micliael until the 11th. Fortunately I am able to send away
the collections, and there will surely be some way down the river.
Ghost Creek
July 1-2, 10.30 p. m. A night on the Yukon. (PL 3, a,) They
have lit a powder against the mosquitoes. Smear the many gnat
bites with Mentholatum — helps but for n, while — and having now my
fine meshed netting, my own bedding, and a clean pillow, I feel
fine, safe from all the pests, and ready for a quiet night, all alone.
Commenced dozing off when a he-cat, who hid in the store at
closing, begins to make all kinds of unnamable noises. Stand it for
a while, but he does not stop and one could never sleep — so crawl
out from the bed, catch the beast, and throw him out.
In again and settling down, when another cat — did not know there
were two here — begins to mew and tries to force its way out under
the door, which is about 2i^ inches above the floor. Persists until
I have to get up the second time. Throw that cat out and in bed
once more.
In a minute, however, the dogs outside espied the cats and began
a pandemonium of howls and yelps and barks. Try hard, but can
not stand it. Moreover, the last cat got on the roof, where I hear
him walking, and he seems in no hurry to get off. So finally have
to get out, catch the cat on the edge of the roof, throw him back into
the store, and to bed for another trial. But soon have to smear the
body; the bites itch too much. The sleepiness is now quite gone.
A mild amusement as to what next. It must be midnight or later
now, and it has grown cold. One blanket is not sufficient. Doze off
a little, wake up with cold, readjust blanket and flaps of bag, doze
off a little again — the dogs commence to howl, just for a song this
time, in two, thi-ee, then a unison. The bites itch bitterly, now here,
now there. The sun has risen ; it is real cold, probably no more than
about 40° to 45° F. And so on until 5.30, when at last fall into
IrEDLICKAJ
WRITER'S TRIP ON YUKON 63
a deep, dreamless sleep, regardless of light, cats, dogs, and everything
and sleep until 8.30.
Wake up, can not believe my watch; but it goes, and so probably
is right. But no one anywhere yet stirring.
Dress, wash a bit in the muddy river; head feels as if it had been
knocked by something heavy. Make my " roll '' of bedding and
then work on notes, putting down faithfully what has transpired.
About 9.30, at last, the storekeeper comes to say they overslept and
that a cup of coffee will be ready before long.
Friday, July 2. " Ghost Creek " was named so bectiuse of many
burials about the creek. The flat between the hills here is about
three-fourths of a mile long by the water front, with rising slopes,
and used to extend considerably farther out, but was " cut " or
washed away by the river. It has been used for a village site and
burial ground by the old Indians of the vicinity. As the banks
tumble away, bone arrow points, barbed and not, stone scrapers, and
other objects wash out. Graves are found in the ground as well as
above it. Russian influence prevalent in the objects buried with the
bodies, but site extends to pro-Russian time. Same type graves as
at Bonasila, with slight local modifications.
At Bonasila the burials above ground were in boxes of hewn wood,
joined somewhat as the logs in a log house, and without any base.
The body inside was covered with birch bark (three or four pieces),
then covered with the top planks, unfastened, and these in turn
covered with about a foot of earth and sod. At Ghost Creek the
same, but there is an undressed-stake base or platform on which the
sides of the " coffin " rest and with somewhat less earth and sod on
the top of the box. But graves differ here from underground and
birch bark alone (no trace of wood, if any was ever there; but
probably none used) to such aboveground as have iron nails and
sawed planks. Here, as at Bonasila, a few simple articles are
generally found buried at the head, and for these many of the graves
were already despoiled and the skeletal remains scattered or reburied.
There appears to be no line of demarcation between the under-
ground and aboveground graves; possibly the latter were winter
burials, but this must be looked into further.
The bodies here, except the latest, are buried flexed. Exception-
ally, both at Bonasila and here, the planks surrounding the grave
were painted with some mineral pigments which resist decomposition
better than the wood, and decorated in a very good native way with
series of animals and men, caribou, bear, etc. Too faint to photo-
graph, and too bulky and decayed to take away; but decoration much
superior to ordinary Indian pictogra^^hs, and apparently connecting
with the type of art of the northwest coast. It is of interest that
64 ANTHROPOLOGICAL, SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. axn. 46
practically the same decorated burials were seen by Dall amon<i the
Eskimo of Norton Sound (Unalaklik)/ In this case it was prob-
ably the Indian habit that was adopted by the near-by Eskimo, for
none of the more northern Eskimo practiced such burials. The habit
was also known in southeastern Alaska. (PI. 3, b.)
Jim Walker, the helpful local mix-breed trader, has dug out many
of these graves (alone or witli Harry Lawrence), and a good many
of the objects are said to have been taken away by Father O'Hara,
formerly of the Holy Cross Mission.
According to all indications the stone culture of Bonasila and of
Ghost Creek (li^ miles upstream from Holy Cross) were related,
both passing apparently into the Russian period, and that at Ghost
Creek continuing down to our times, for there is still living here an
old man who belongs to this place which once had a large village.
Much could be done yet and saved in both places.
Saturday, July 3. At last slept, notwithstanding everj^thing, and
succeeded even in being warm.
Breakfast 8.30, for a wonder. Two soft-boiled Seattle eggs, two
bits of toast with canned butter (not bad at all), some over-pre-
served raspberries, and a faded-looking nearly cold "flapjack" with
sirup, also mediocre tea. But all goes here, and the stomach calls
for no other attention than to fill it.
Finishing work, getting further information from the old Indian,
writing, and waiting to go away with a trader to Paimute, the first
all-Eskimo village. 25 miles farther down the river. Rains occa-
.sionally, but not very cold. Many gnats when wind moderates.
Lunch — canned sardines ( in this land of fresh salmon ! ) . a bit of
toast, some canned fruit, and that unsavory tea.
Have utilized this day in a profitable manner. Have learned
that there was another burial ground alwut half a mile farther up-
stream, behind an elevation. So got a rowboat and with Jim
Walker's young boy rowed over. Had to wade through high grass
over a wet flat, and then up the rank grass and bush-covered slope,
and there found a number of old burials. All rifled, but most of
the bones still there. So send boy back, on the quiet — there is above
the store the camp of the old man with an old Indian woman and
sick girl — for some boxes, and meanM'hile collect. It is an unceasing
struggle with the mosquitoes and gnats in the tall grass and weeds;
but one after another I find what remains of the usual old box
* .Vlaska and Its Resources, p. in : " Onr attention was/ attracted by the numerous graves.
These are well worth the careful attention of the ethnologist ; many of them arc very old.
The usual fashion is to place the body. (Inuhled up. on its side, in a box of plank hewed
out of spruce logs and about 4 I'cct long ; this is elevated several feet above the ground
on four posts, which project above the coffin or box. The sides are often painted with
red chalk, in figures of fur animals, birds, and fishes."
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 3
a. Midnight on the Yukon
6, Lower middlt; "i iiko:, I ii];i( .1 i.uriil i.dx of a Y'ukon Indian (before 1884) said to have been a
hunter uf Bielui^ai. (.white whalesj, which used to ascend far up the Yukon
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 4
a, Eskimo camp below Pairaute, Yukon River
b, GUI "]iruhiliiliit'" sile V2 miles down from Palmate, ritthl h;ink, jusi tieyomi " r2-m.ile bill.'
(skull, bones, stones)
' site la bunk seon in middle of picture, 12 miles down from Panniite, oppo:?ite that sliown in
preceding figure. (A. li., 1926)
HKDLIOKA] WRITER'S TRIP 0>f YUKON 65
burials. The bones are mostly in good condition. The boy arrives
with several empty gasoline boxes, we gather drier grass and moss,
and pack right on the spot, eventually get to the boat, strike off as
far as pos.sible from the shore so none could see what is carried, and
proceed to Walker's storeliouse. Old Indian and his old crony
nevertheless stand on bank and look long at us. In storehouse boxes
closed, later delivered by the boy to the mail boat, and so that mucli
is saved; for were it not collected, in a few years the weather, vegeta-
tion, and animals, human and other, would destroy everything.
Moreover, the utmost care is taken always to leave everything in as
good shape as found ; and the i-emains taken will be treated so well
and may give us so much that we need that there is no more hesita-
tion in securing them than there would be on the part of a paleon-
tologist in securing old bones for his purposes.
For suj^per, though it is still early, am invited by Simel. an elderly
Jew mail carrier. Have fine meat-and-potato soup, lettuce-and-
cucumber salad (even if the cucumbers from the Holy Cross hot-
house are overripe and bitter), fresh (storage) meat, cooked dried
apples, and poor but hot coffee — all seasoned with the best will and
genuine, simple friendliness.
Max Simel, whose home is at Ophir, has been in this country 29
yeai's, and "never needed to buy a quarter's worth of medicine."
Has a wife in Seattle, also a daughter and a son ; has not seen them
for four years. Wants me to call on them and tell them I met him.
With his companion, Paul Keating, of Holikachakat. gives me some
interesting information. They tell me indejsendently and then to-
gether of an occurrence that shows what may happen along this great
river. A well-known white man and woman, prospectors on their
mail route, have last year thawed and dug out a shaft, nearly 40 feet
deep, through muck and silt, to the gravel, in which they hoped to
get gold; and just before they reached the gravel they found a piece
of calico, old and in bad condition, but still showing some of its
design and color.
7 p. m. It rains, but wind has moderated, and so near 7 p. m.
we start on our way farther down the river, stopping just long enough
at Holy Cross to attend to mj^ reservation for St. Michael. The agent
has no idea when the boat will go — maybe the 11th, maybe not until
the 14th or later.
Going on an old leaky scow with an elderly, faded, chewing, not
very talkative but for all that very kindly and acconunodating man,
who with one hand holds the steering wheel and with the other most
of the time keeps on bailing. He carries supplies for his store and I
my outfit, camera, and umbrella. Sky has here and there cleared,
66 ANTHKOPOI.OGICAL, SXTEVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ann. 46
even patches of sun appear on far-away clean-cut hills. Water not
very rough; make fair time downstream. Banks flat now, river
broad, some hills in distance.
8.00 p. m. Hills nearer ahead of us. Some of the flats look from
distance like fine tree nurseries. Getting cool. Cloudy ahead. The
banks flat and low, no good site for habitation. Not even fishing
camps here — just long " cut-banks " (banks being cut by the river)
and low beaches. Here and there new bars and islands that are
being built by the river. No birds, no boats, just an occasional
floating snag or a rare solitary gull,
Paimute
Paimute down river, I am told, has nothing but Eskimo; Holy
Cross, but a few natives now. mainly Indian; above Holy Cross,
Indian, Eskimo only as adapted or in admixture.
July 3, 8.30 p. m. Hills on right now right before us. Behind first
a fish camp of the Holy Cross Mission natives. River narrows and
bends. Two other fish camps become visible. Stop ; damp, cold,
smoke, fish smell, a few natives, Eskimo. River now like molten
glass, but air damp and cold, and I must sit behind the engine and
keep my hands over the hot exhaust pipe to keep somewhat com-
fortable.
Pass bulging bluffs on right — old stratified shales.
11.00 p. m. Arrive at our destination about 11 p. m. But a few log
huts on the right side of the river, with few others and a primitive
frame church in the back. A little store and a big storehouse (with
skins, etc.), trader's house (log cabin) a few rods away. Open
store, only to find that a pup had been forgotten there, made a lot
of mess and dirt and ate most of one side of bacon.
12.00 p. m. Got to bed in the cabin at 12. Spread bed roll on
two reindeer skins which, with fire in the stove, keep me fairly warm.
Rain in night and several earth tremors — common in these parts;
feel several light ones every night and a stronger one occasionally
even in daytime (a big " fault " in the Alaskan range and a prox-
imity to the Aleutian volcanic zone).
Awake before 8, but as it still rains nothing can be done, while
my man within a few feet of me still snores; stay in blanket till 9.
Modest breakfast at 10 a. m.
10.00 a. m. A little house cleaning — watch kitten clean windows
of the many flies, which it eats; and then my man, a Swede by birth,
sailor, self-taught painter (of ships and sea scenes), and musician
(accordion), goes to bail out the boat. Still full of bites that itch
and need a lot of Aseptinol, which in turn makes underwear look
dreadful. And no liath possible.
hkdliOka] WKITEE-S TRIP OX YUKON 67
Last night met some of the local Eskimo, full bloods, mostly from
the Kuskokwim River. Stronfr, kinder than the Yukon Indians.
But they differ but little in some cases from the latter. They are
medium brown in color, hair exactly like the Indian, beard also —
only the rather flat (not prominent) mid parts of the face, with
rather long and narrow (upper two-thirds) nose, and the cheek
bones protruding more or less forward, with face long (often), due
to the vertical development of the jaws, helps to distinguish them as
Eskimo. There is no clear line of demarcation between the Indian
farther up the river and the Eskimo down here, yet in some here
the Eskimo type is unmistakable. They have more epicanthus,
flatter, longer, and stronger (more massive) face, stronger frame,
rather submcdium length of legs, and less Brachycef)halic (or more
oblong) head, but not the characteristic, narrow and high, keel-
shaped dome that one is used to associate with the Eskimo.
1 p. m. A little lunch — just a cup of coffee and a few crackers.
Photograph two natives.
1.30 p. m. Start toward Russian Mission. Trader carries sugar
in bags and tea for camps.
Near 2. Stop at an Eskimo camp, see sick baby, photograiDh a
few individuals. Get an ax for a pocketbook — old man happy as a
child at the exchange. Made another one happy this morning in
payment for information with one of my steamer caps. (PI. 4. a.)
Pass along the still continuing bulging hills on the right. They
are forested over lower joarts, barren, though mostly greenish, above.
As usual flats on left, devoid of man. Occasionally a fish camp on
right, or a small village, somewhat different, though in essentials
like the Indian (more gregariousness noticeable — up river mostly
individual or at most two or three families) . Every favorable higher
flat or low saddle among the hills on the right and facing the river
(or a slough) is utilized by tlie natives, but such places are scarce.
The ax obtained looks as if it had been broken after found, to make
of it a single-edge tool. Tumbled out of a bank. Old Eskimo knew
not who made it. Found some miles below Paimute by the old man.
Others found, but lost. Ivory arrow and spear points also known
to natives, but no one now has any.
A mountain ahead of us. Sky clouded mostly, high diffuse vapors
and low, heavy but separated cumuli in the east; one would expect
soon a heavy rain. Visibility exceptionally good, horizons far
away, uncommonly clear. Mountains sharply outlined against the
sky.
About 12 miles below Paimute, on left, some higher banks (old silts
and dunes). The ax from the old man had been found here. Stop.
Find pottery 12 feet, charcoal 15 feet from surface, Also polished
68 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ann, k
and worked stones. But most of bank has already been cut off and
what remains shows no signs of man on the top. (PI. 4, h.)
Cross river obliquely to right bank, just beyond last (" 12-mile '')
hill. Find at once numerous evidences of stone work along the stony
beach. In an hour have a fair collection, mainly rejects, but interest-
ing. On top of bank find several mounds and ridges, doubtless dunes,
though the one farthest up the river looks very much like a large
oval man-made mound. Parts of two much-weathered skulls and
one bone lay on the top of this. No definite marks of graves except-
ing perhaps in one instance. A sign of old clearing farther down,
but no "barabras." A spot well worthy of exploration. It was, I
learned a little later from Nick Williams, a native who used to act
as a pilot on the river, the old mountain village or " Ingrega-miut,"
and the site is 12 miles downstream from Paimute. (PI. 4, c.)
Beyond are flats and cut banks, both sides, but with hills (old
water front) behind on the right and mountains in front. River
here very wide.
Many of the worked stones, and occasionally, according to native
information, skulls and bones, are washed out from the banks and
deposited (rolling, etc.) lower on the beach in something like strata,
and in that way evidence is being perverted. Some day a new bank
or even a dune may be formed over these secondary deposits and a
great source of possible future error be completed.
All the natives along the river (to here) like to bury on the lower
slopes of near-by hills.
To bed on floor of kitchen tent at the fine, clean little place of
Tucker's, at 10.30. At 1.30 the 20 dogs start a fine, sustained, unison
howl song, and I seem to hear an approaching boat. As the Gov-
ernor of Alaska is ex23ected, slip on shoes and necktie, brush hair,
and run out. There is a little boat at the little " dock " (the only
one seen so far on the Yukon). Tucker and his son are already
there, and I soon hear that the governor is on the boat, which is
that of Mr. Townsend, of the Fish Commission. In a few minutes
we meet, both in shirt sleeves. And I learn the Matanfrnka, the
boat that was to take me from the Russian Mission to St. Michael,
has broken down and is not coming. In her place, but no telling
as to time, will be sent the AgTies, a smaller and slower boat, on
which three people have already this season been " gassed " (over-
come by the exhaust gases), one of them jumping into the river.
She has accommodation for four persons at most, and that of the
most primitive, they say. The governor fortunately gives me some
hope that I may be picked up and taken down by the same boat which
is taking him to Holy Cross. He also tells me of a skull for me at
one of the sto^jping places, Old Hamilton. A frank, good, strong
man.
HRDllfKA]
WEITEE''S TRIP ON YUKON 69
Boat leaves in a few minutes. Back to bed, but now almost full
daylight — also cold, and so no more than a doze until 6.15, at whicli
time the boy comes to the kitchen where I was kindly accommodated
to start fire and breakfast. So up with a drowsy head. At 7 break-
fast— coffee, oatmeal, flapjacks, and good company. Everything
about this place is neat, fresh, pleasing — the best individual place
on the river. Cloudy, blustery, cool; can not start, so go 11/2 miles
down to Dogfish village, or I-ka-thloy-gia-miut — probably the same
as Zagoskin's I-ka-lig-vig-miut. Only three or four families there
now; nearly all the inhabitants died of influenza in 1900. But
already before reaching the village, in examining the stones along
the beach. I find some chipped ones, and they represent the same
industry evidently as those at the two sites yesterday. Later find
numerous chipped scrapers, pointed hammers, crude cutters and
chisels, and a few axes. Make quite a collection, including a few
objects found in possession of natives.
This is a good site, above high water. Must be old. Pottery also
encountered occasionally by present occupants, but not one bead ;
little if any river cutting here for a long jjeriod. Worth exploration.
Photograph another Indianlike Eskimo. Want to buy an old dish
from an Eskimo, border inlaid with six white stones, shaped like an
oblong lozenge with rounded corners, but he wants $20. Lunch all
together, some Eskimo included, at Tucker's, and then as the wind
moderates and the sun comes out, start for the Russian Mission.
Mostly still clouds and cool, with some rain in the mountains to
the right.
Finds and inquiries made at Dogfish village make it positive that
the stone culture there is Eskimo, i. e., of the Eskimo of this region
who are probably not a little mixed with Indians. Their head is
but moderately oblong, not keel shaped. The majority, however,
have Eskimo features.
But the cupid-bow (double-grooved) axes are not known to have
been made by these people, and when used after being found or
brought down ft-om farther up the river they apparently were
broken. One such example was seen already at Ruby — another one
at Anvik — secured ; and one found yesterday at Mountain village.
The axes here are most often oblong, quadrilateral, without gi-oove,
or approaching the single-grooved axes of the Indians in the States.
July 6. Proceed down the river toward Russian Mission, examin-
ing the banks as closely as possible. Toward evening stop at
" Gurtler's," a short distance above the mission.
Mr. Gurtler is a German by birth ; his wife is half Indian, of Rub}'.
She, as well as her 14-year-old daughter, are neat, apt. and very in-
dustrious, quiet and nice mannered. With an Eskimo woman, she
70 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ANN. 4«
cleans and cuts up — a whole art of its own — on the average over 200
ffood-sized salmon a day. Clean place, very good smoking house —
much superior to those up the river, except Tucker's.
Sleep in a clean bed of theirs; would much prefer my own and
the hard floor, but fear to offend.
RussiAx Mission
Pack my stones and bones collected between here and Holy Cross,
and after lunch go to Russian Mission. Meet Mr. Cris Betsch. the
trader, and find him both friendly and anxious to help. Teacher
and her mother invite me to supper. Before that Mr. Betsch calls in
a number of the older men, and we have a talk about ancient things,
but they know nothing worth while beyond a few score of years at
most ; they give me, however, some data and names of old villages.
A few years ago some human bones and skulls were dug up here
and reburied. Eskimo readily agree to help us find them and to let
me take them. Moreover, they are quite eager to dig up an old medi-
cine man sujiposed to be buried under a good-sized (for this country)
blue spruce. They get shovels, soon find some of the old bones and a
damaged skull, and later on, with the help of information given by
an elderly woman, uncover also a female skull. Uncover further
the end of two birch-bark-covered coffins, from Russian time, and
would readily dig them out did I not restrain them; as also with
the medicine man. We shall probably get some such specimens from
this locality later, so there is no need of disturbing the burials.
Mrs. Barrick, the teacher, gives us a " civilized '' supiDer, at which I
am introduced for the fir.st time to a great and fine Yukon specialty,
namely, smoked raw strij^s of king salmon, and find them excellent.
Then a good talk with all, after which pack specimens — still some-
what damp, but it would be difficult to wait — deliver to the post, and
am sent to niy place around the hill at a little past 10 p. m. with an
invitation by Mr. Betsch to go to-morrow to* " the slough of the 32
kashims (council or communal house)," about 10 miles down the
river. But I have already been promised by Gurtler to take me
down to this place, and so I can not accept. Just now I need sleep.
July 7. After breakfast examine banks and beach along Gurtler's
place and find two stone implements, two pieces of decorated pot-
tery, and a bone of some animal. Wash, dry, and pack, then a cup
of coffee — the Gurtler's have a habit of drinking a second cup at
about 10 a. m. each day — and then, after some of the seemingly
inevitable trouble with motor, start down the river. It rained yes-
terday; the clouds show low pressure; it is not warm and the water
is somewhat rough.
HRDi.irKA] WKITER'S TRIP ox YUKOlSr 71
Stop a bit at the mission to give Mrs. Barrick a fish and get a bag
or two from Mr. Betsch. and then proceed. From the river the
Eussian Mission settlement is seen to be very favorably situated at
the foot of the southern slope of a big hill. But the recency of the
iiat below and in front of the church and schoolhouse is clearly
seen again. The site about where the church and school are may —
in fact must, it is so favored — be a very old one, and doubtless a
thorough excavation of the sloj^e from the back of the houses
upward would be both easy and very instructive. The place should
by all means receive attention.
Reach and examine the " 32 kashim slough," a beautiful side chan-
nel about T miles long; reach about V/o miles from its entrance.
examine banks and pass through jungle, find tracks of foxes and of
a bear, also see one big beautiful red fox trotting ahead of us on the
other beach — but not a trace of man. Examine also the " mounds "
on Grand Island, but find them to be only dunes.
Lunch on the beach; remarkably few mosquitoes and no gnats;
smoked raw salmon strips again, and coffee; and at 5 leave for home,
it being impossible so late to go down to the end of the channel.
On return all going nicely until 5. Then, in a slough 3i/o miles
from the Russian Mission, after an examination of another likely site,
breakdown of the motor. Do everything possible to make it go until
about 8, but in vain. Then I take the crazy little rowboat that luck-
ily we took with us, bail out the water with our shovel, and row to
the mission for help. Get there about 9, send back a launch with some
natives, have a little supper with the teacher, and row home around
the hill, reaching Gurtler's near 11. In a few minutes the launch
is towed in and all is well once more. Mr. Betsch got for us two
good native '' kantags " or wooden dishes. Also we fix to go down to
the " 32 kashims " to-morrow once more with Mr. Betsch and the
teacher.
July 8. Up a littl§ after 6 ; breakfast ; and then comes in a native
from the mission with two letters and information that the Agnes,
the little mail-carrier boat, has arrived during the night and is wait-
ing for me to take me to Marshall and to Old Hamilton, whence
another boat will take me in a day or two to St. Michael. So get
ready in a minute, put my baggage on a native's boat, pay my bill,
leave another lot of good friends, and row to the mission. There is
the little dinghy Agnes with its "accommodation" for three passengers
already two-thirds filled up, and towing two big logs as a freight.
Put my things partly in a "bunk," partly on the roof, give good-byes
to Betsch and the teacher, help to push off the boat which is stuck in
the mud, and we are off for another Yukon chapter.
72 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [bth. ann. 46
We pass by the lower end of the "32 kashim " sloun;h — no sign of
any site — all I'ecently made flats. If there is anything left of the old
sites it must be at the foot of the hills, or has been covered with silt.
The site is so favorable that in all probability there was once there
a good-sized settlement, but due to river action and the jungle it
could not be located. Mr. Betsch visited the place that day, and again
with some old natives on another occasion, without being more
fortunate.
Cloudy, slightly drizzly day, no trace of sun, mists over the tops of
the hills. Could not stand it in the boat, so sitting on my box on
the roof of the boat, wrapjDed, due to the cold, in a blanket.
A little below the " 32 kashim " slough a small stream enters from
inland — a place to be examined ; but this boat can not stop for such
8 purpose.
A half mile or so farther down a few graves and crosses, with
remnants of a native habitation.
Over 3 miles down, just beyond first bluff, fine site, with low hills
stretching far beyond it — now but a few empty, half-ruined native
houses. Should be explored.
South of second rocky bluff a live camp, and farther down an-
other.
The left side of the river is still all flats as far as one can see,
but about 17 miles below Russian Mission human bones came out of
a bank there (on a slough).
Marshall
At 3 p. m. reach Marshall, a little cheerful-looking mining town,
high on a bank. See the place, identify the skeleton from the above-
mentioned bank as that of a missing white man, see telegraph oper-
ator, i^ostmaster, teacher, commissioner. Sun comes out, is warm.
Almost no mosquitoes here and no gnats. Hills above and beyond
town belong alreadj' to the coast range and are barren of trees, even
largely bare of shrubs and bushes. Leave 4.30.
Soon after Marshall — after passing by an Eskimo village (white
man's style of buildings) — leave the hills and enter flats on both
sides. This is the beginning of the delta region. River like glass,
and it is warm in the sun but very perceptibly cooler when sun is
hidden.
The boat has only three bunks, and there are five of us with the two
pilots. But on the last trip up, there were, fortunately only for
about eight hours, seven, incltuling two women and a child, and that
without any privacy or conveniences whatsoever. It is almost crim-
inal, and they chai-ge a very steep fare. However, for me it will
soon be over — only about 36 hours. Still it is hard to believe this
bedliCka] WEITER'S trip ON YTJKOST 73
is yet in the United States ami presumably under some sort of
supervision.
Which brings me to a realization that the first half of my jour-
ney— the preliminary survey of the Yukon — is slowly closing; a
little, and it will be the sea and other conditions, which also brings
the realization that I have seen much but learned not greatly. What
should be done would be to own a suitable fast boat ; to locate on each
of the more important old sites a partj' for careful, prolonged exca-
vation ; and to try to locate, in the rear of or on the liigher places on
the present river flats, more ancient sites than are known to date.
Tliese steps, together with the enlisting of the interest in these mat-
ters of every jDrospector, miner, and trader, would before many years
lead to much substantial knowledge.
Friday, July 9. Must keep up these notes, for they alone keep me
posted on the day and date ; even then I am not always sure. There
are no Sundays in nature.
Slejjt in my bag on the roof of the Agnes. Her namesake must
have been one of these goodly but insufficient and but indifferently
clean native women, plodding, doing not a little work, but wanting
in many a thing. It was cold and dreary, but I found an additional
blanket, and so, with mosquito netting about my head — one or two
got in anyway — would have slept quite well had it not been for a
dog. At about 1 a. m. we stopped in front of a little place caUed
also ■' Mountain Village." And almost at once we began to hear a
most piteous and insistent wail of a dog who either had colic or thirst
or hunger, and he kept it ujd with but little stops for what seemed
like two hours, making my sleep, at least, impossible.
Saturday, July 9. Morning. Cold, cloudy, rough — head almost
beginning to feel uncomfortable, the boat is tossing so much. A
teacher comes aboard with an inflamed hand which I fix; a few
questions, the mail bag, and we are off again. Enter a slough where
it is less rough and warmer. Later the sun will probably come out
again. This evening we sliall be at Old Hamilton and then a new
anxiety — how to get to St. Michael.
Just had a little walk over the roof — my roof, for the other two
passengers prefer to sleep in the gassy, dingy room below, though how
they can stand it is beyond my medical ken. It is four short steps
long, or five half steps in an oblique direction.
Every object in distance ai^pears magnified all along the river for
many days now. An old snag will look like a boat or a man, hills
look higher, a boat looks much more pretentious than she proves to
be on meeting.
Firs and spruce have now completely disappeared, also forests of
birch, etc., are reduced to brush both on flats and lower parts of hills.
. 88253°— 30 6
74 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [BTH. ANN. 46
Very large portion of the hills in distance just greenish with grass
and lichens, not even a brush.
9.45 a. m. Meet the Mataiiushm bound upward. Looked from dis-
tance like an ocean steamer; from near, just a lumbering, moderate-
sized river boat with a barge in front. But a whole lot better than
ours.
The scenery has become monotonous. The gray river, although
only one of the '' mouths," is broad, and the country is all low.
Nothing but bushy or grassy cut banks on the right, and mud flats,
" smoking ■' under the wind, to low banks on left. It is a little
warmer and the warm sun shows itself occasionally, but I still need
the wrapping of a double blanket. The wind luckily is with us and
the waves not too bad.
Noon. Passing " Fish village " ; a few huts and tents.
No " camps " here outside the few villages ; just an endless dreary
waste and water.
New Hamilton — a few native huts only now — no whites.
Keach Old Hamilton — about a dozen houses with a warehouse,
a store of the Northern Commercial Co., and a nice looking but now
unoccupied school.
Here the governor told me there was somewhere a skull waiting
for me, and the storekeeper would tell me of it. But when we arrive
there are only two or three natives to meet us. The storekeeper,
who is also postmaster, is said to be sick in bed. He is supposed to
have an ulcer or some other bad thing of the stomach. So we go to
his house and find him in bed, with a lot of medicine bottles on a table
next to him. Is alone ; no wife. Shows no enthusiasm in seeing me,
though heard of my coming. Reads letters — no attention to me.
Gets up — I ask him about his illness — answers like a man carrying a
chip on his shoulder. Goes to store to attend to mail, and barely
asks me to follow. I wait in store ; he finishes mail and goes out — ■
orders the Eskimo present out gruffly, and to me says, " You may
stay in the store; I'll be back." But I wait and wait, and finally
decide the man for some reason is unwilling to help me. Asked him
before he went out about the Matanuska, but he told nie she might
not be back from Holy Cross in a month, trying doubtless to dis-
courage me to stay. On going toward the Agnes I find him sitting
on a log and talking to a couple of men from a tugboat that has
arrived — just talk, no business, judging from their laughing. So I
go on the boat, write a few words to Mr. Townsend of the Bureau of
Fisheries, who makes this place his headquarters, and with some
feeling hand this to the man, telling him at the same time that
plainly he does not wish to assist me in any way. This, of course,
rouses him; he gets red and says a few lame words, ending with,
" Do you think I would touch any of them dam things or that
HKDLIlKA]
WRITER'S TRIP ON YUKON 75
I would let any of my men (natives) touch them? Not on your
life !" So I leave Old Hamilton, for he is the only white man there
now. But the place had other distinctions. Until recently, I am
told, they have had a teacher, a young girl, who in her zeal had the
natives collect all the burial boxes with their contents and had them
all thrown into the river. Xot long after she accomplished that she
left. The storekeeper told me that " If I want them so bad I could
pick them up (skulls and bones) along the river where the water
washed them out after the teacher threw them in." Luckily there
were not many " Old Hamiltons."
We met here a boat from St. Michael with Mr. Frank P. Williams,
the well-known postmaster and trader of St. Michael, who comes
for the two men. my fellow passengers. We get acquainted and, to
escape the gases of the Agnes, I go with them. The boat is heavier
and free from fumes, though without acconmiodation. At about 7
p. m. we arrive at Kotlik, at the mouth of the river — an abandoned
wireless station, a store, and four tents of natives. But the old
wireless building, now the storekeeper's house, is the dwelling place
of a clean white man, Mr. Backlund, who is now "outside," but
with whom Mr. Williams is in some partnership; so we occupy the
building. Outside the wind has risen to half a gale and there are
squalls of rain and drizzle. The Agnes has to " tie to," as she would
be swamped in the open. My boxes and bedding, which were on the
roof of the Agnes, are soaked, though the contents will be dry. So
both boats are fastened to a little "dock," and we soon have fire in
the stove, supper, and then — it is 11 p. m. — a bed, not overclean,
somewhat smelly, but a bed and free from mosquitoes, rain, wind,
and cold.
July 10. Up at 6.30. Outside a storm and rain — just like one of
the three-day northeasters with us, and cool. Both boats were to
leave, but are unable to do so. I find that Mr. Williams's tug will
come back here and go to St. Michael on the 13th, so arrange with
Mr. Williams to take me and leave the Agnes for good. This partly
because I learn of two graveyards near, one li/2) the other 4^4
miles distant.
After lunch, rain for a while ceasing, I set out for the nearer
burial place. This is already a tundra country — treeless and bush-
less flats overgrown with a thick coat of moss, into which feet bury
themselves as in a cushion, and dotted with innumerable swampy
depressions with high swamp grass. Walking over all this is very
difficult — lucky I have rubl)er boots. Even so, it is no easy matter,
except where a little native trail is encountered.
The graveyard, belonging to the now abandoned little village above
Kotlik, consists of only about half a dozen adult graves. These
consist of boxes of heavv lumber laid on a base raised above the
76 ANTHKOPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [bth. ANN. 46
ground level, and covered with other heavy boards. Some of the
burials are quite recent. Open three older ones. In two the re-
mains are too fresh yet, but from one secure a good female skeleton,
which I pack in a practically new heavy pail, thrown out probably
on the occasion of the last funeral. Then back, farther out, to avoid
notice, through swamps and over moss, and with a recurring wind-
ilriven drizzle against which my umbrella is but a weak protection.
Reach home quite wet and a bit tired. Have to undress and,
wrapped in a blanket, dry my clothes and underwear about the
stove.
Nothing further this day and evening — just wind and heavy low
clouds and rain.
July 11. Up at 4.40. Weather has moderated. The Affiles left
at 4 and Mr. Williams's boat, due to^ favorable tide, must soon go
also. Breakfast, and all leave me before 6.
Yesterday we brought up my needs — i. e., collection of skeletal
material — to the few natives here, explaining to them everything,
and they do not object in the least. One of them, in fact, is to take
me to-day to the more distant cemetery in a rowboat and help me
in my work.
My man, after being sent for, comes at a little after 7. He is a
good-looking and well-behaving Eskimo of about 35. He brings a
good-sized tin rowboat — a whaling or navy boat probably; but "he
leaks a whole lot." The oarlocks are not fastened to the boat, the
plate of one is loose, and the oars are crudely homemade of drift-
wood and pieces of lumber fastened on with nails; in one the shaft
is crooked, while the other is much heavier. But we start, with the
sky still leaden and gray but no wind and calm water. I row
and he paddles; then he rows and I paddle. We carry but the
camera, a little lunch, a heavier coat each, and a box and two bags
for the specimens. We pass a number of broods of little ducks, the
mother prancing before us until the young are in safety, and there
are several species of new kinds (to me) of water birds, some of
which fly right above us, examining us. In the distance we see a
big abandoned dredge, then a few empty log houses and " barabras "
on the bank of a stream and the edge of the tundra. This is Pas-
tolik, our destination. There is no one anj'where near, an ideal con-
dition for work, if work there'll be. And tliere will be — for almost
inmiediately upon landing I see, beginning at a few rods distance
on the tundra, a series (about 50) of old graves, in all grades of
mossiness and preservation. A few are, we later find, quite late, but
the majority are old — 60 years and over according to information
given by the natives of Kotlik. They do not, except perhaps the
few late ones, seem to belong to anyone still living. Yet " Pash-
URDii. KA] WRITER'S TRIP OX YUKON 77
tolik," as they wrote it then, used to be a phice of some importance
in the Russian times, and even later.
We settle in an empty native house, and I start investigation.
The older graves are found widely spread in several clusters, but a
few are isolated at a distance.
The graves are all aboveground and resemble in substance those
along the lower Yukon (Bonasila and downward). They consist
of a base of small logs or splits; a rude box about 3 feet long by
about 2 feet wide, of heavy, unpainted, unnailed, split boards; four
posts near the four corners ; a cover, unjoined, of two to three heavy
split boards; two crosspieces over this, at head and base, perforated
and sliding over the uj^right posts, and a few half splits (smaller
drift logs split in two) laid over the top of the crosspieces.
On the first cover lies as a rule a stone — generally a piece of a
slab or a good-sized pebble — unworked, though now and then show-
ing some trace of use. The pebble is generally broken.
When the grave is opened there is usually over the body, as a
canopy on a light frame, a large (probably caribou) skin — rarely
birch bark. Neither covers or envelops the body but simply forms
a covering over it, with some space between it and the body. The
body lies flexed, on left or (rarely) right side, with the head toward
(or near) the east (same as at Bonasila). It is often covered with
or enveloped in a native matting. There are but few traces of
clothing on women; none on men. And very seldom is there any-
thing else in the coffin.
Some ^f the oldest graves were found tumbled down and could
not be examined. The moss and roots envelop the bones, and it is a
tough job to get them out ; also they eat the bones and destroy them.
Even in the older boxes, however, the downward part of the skele-
ton— generally the left — is, due to moisture, usually in much worse
state of preservation than the upper.
Childi-en have been buried in large native wooden dishes and
these were in some cases placed on the tojs of adult graves, but more
generally about these, or even apart.
Many household articles, from matches and pails to dishes, alarm
clocks, lamps, etc., are placed upon the ground near the more recent
dead. Excavation would probably recover here many older objects,
though wood decays.
The wind has died down and the flat is as full of mosquitoes as a
Jersey salt meadow, and there is an occasional gnat. They bite, and,
having been almost free of the pest at Kotlik, I failed to take my
"juice" along, so just have to do the best possible. The gnats enter
even the eyes, however.
78 ANTHBOPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [BTH. ANN. 46
Woi-kas never before. Decide to utilize the rare opportunity to
the limit, and to take the whole skeletons, not merely the skulls, leav-
ing only the few fresher ones and those that are badly damaged. A
great Sunday; burial after burial: opening the wooden grave —
taking out and marking on the spot bone after bone — fighting mos-
quitoes all the while — and packing temporarily in any convenient
receptacle. Fortunately there are quite a few boxes and pails and
oil cans on the spot, left by the dredge people and the few natives
who evidently sometimes come to the place. At about 2 eat lunch —
coffee (the Eskimo put what was for three cups into about two
quarts of water, so there is but a suggestion of coffee), raw smoked
fish for me and eggs with bacon (left over from breakfast) for my
companion, and on again until about 5 p. m. or a little later. Last
two or three hours, however, work with some difficulty. A gnat bit
me in an eyelid, or got into my eye, and that has now swollen so
that I can hardly see with it. My Eskimo, however, is about all I
could wish. He just looks at me working in a matter-of-fact way,
and carries the filled boxes, or looks around for something I could
take with me, and even helps on a few occasions with the bones, find-
ing evidently the whole proceeding quite right and natural. Brings
me, among other things, an old copper teakettle, but to his wonder I
do not want it and leave it. I find a fine large walrus-ivory doll
and a handsome decorated "kantag" (wooden bowl), besides smaller
objects, and also a large piece of a poor quality clay pot (no pottery
now), with a fragment of a decorated border as on the lower Yukon.
Pack up, we load on the boat — lucky now she is so spacit)us — get
into the shallow river — the tide has run out — push the boat out and
start for home.
Thus far we had but slight drizzles. But the clouds now grow
heavier, and as we have much farther to row than this morning,
due to the low water, we are caught by showers. The last mile or so
we have to hurry, see a big rain approaching. My man pushes her
with a pole while I row all I can, with both hands, with the heavy
oar. Of course the whole population of Kotlik has to see our arrival.
And more, too, for in our absence a schooner came in with wood and
a number of the natives. They talk, but no one is either angry or
excited. We two carry the boxes, pails, etc. — grass covered — into the
house; how lucky I am now alone. Inside I remove the wet grass
from them — the bones, too, are somewhat wet — then pay my Eskimo
$5, which again is taken as a matter-of-fact thing, without thanks,
but he well deserved the amount, even if I rowed a full half.
It is 9 p. m. My man comes again, we have a modest supper, he
some left-over meat and I again the smoked fish, which I feel is
strengthening me as well as agreeing with my stomach, and then to
bedliCka] WKITEE'S TRIP ON YUKON 79
rest, quite earned to-daj^ Seldom have done as much in a day.
Thirty-three graves collected, with over twenty nearly complete skele-
tons, and all restored so that I had to take considerable care not to go
again into some already emptied. But this place should be dug
over. The tundra in a few years swallows up everything on the
surface. It literally buries or assimilates bones' and all other objects,
the moss and other vegetation with probably blown dust covermg
them very effectively. Finding anything below the surface and that
even a foot or more, as was actually experienced, means something
quite different under these conditions than it might elsewhere.
Monday, July 12. Slept fairly well and feel refreshed, but the
eye still badly swollen. The Eskimo believe, I think, I got it from
the bones. Yet they are quite sensible — a marked mental difference
between them and the Yukon Indians.
Breakfast before 7 — cereal, raw smoked fish, and coffee. Then
pack. At the store buy empty gasoline boxes, but no nails to be had,
and no packing. Lunch at 1 — macaroni, raw smoked fish, sauer-
kraut, coffee; then pack again, fix boxes, break old ones to get nails,
even pull a few unnecessary ones from the boards of the house, go
see my man's wife, a hopeless consumptive, and at 6 through with all
except cleaning. Another fair work-day, 12 tightly packed boxes.
Then clean up, burn rubbish, and ready for departure early to-
morrow.
Supper — macaroni, raw smoked fissh, greengage plums, a little
sauerkraut, and coffee. Then a little walk outside, watch Eskimo
women and children jump the rope (hilariously, but awkwardly),
and go in to catch up with my notes. Nobody scowls at me, so that
although thej^ probably fear me as a " medicine man " they are not
at all resentful for what I did yesterday. They are grown-up chil-
dren, nmch more tractable than the ludians. But otherwise they
show so much in common with the Indian that the moi-e one sees of
them the more he grows drawn to the belief of the original (and that
not so far distant) identity of their parentage. It seems the Es-
kimo and the Indian are after all no more than two diverging fingers
of one and the same hand; or they were so a bit farther back.
Mental differences thei'e are, yet these are no more than may be found
in different tribes of the Indians or difi'ei-ent groups of other races.
Tuesday, July 13. Rise a little after G. Eye still sore after
Simday's gnat and sweat and dirt; must use boric acid frequently.
An Eskimo actually said yesterday it was a sickness from touching
the bones. A little breakfast — have no more salmon strips, so just
cereal, canned plums, and coffee. And then with the help of two
young Eskimo carry my spoils and baggage on to the tug, which has
come for me. By about 7 start. Good-by Kotlik, what little there
is of it.
80 ANTHEOPOLOGIC-U. SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth.ann.4G
At 9 arrive at Mr. Williams's reindeer camp farther up the coast.
There are five tents and two small log houses of natives — the herders
with their families, dogs, and fish racks; and three whites, Mr.
Williams, owner of the boat and of most of the herd of about
8,000 animals; Mr. Palmer, of the United States Biological Survey;
and a Dane, Mr. Posielt, here for the Biological Survey of Canada.
All are already at the corral some distance over the hill, branding,
counting, etc., the great reindeer herd, which belong to several
owners.
A short walk along the shore brings me in sight of the herd.
The animals can be heard grunting a good distance off. The herd
is so large and so compact that it looks like a forest of horns. The
animals keep on moving in streams, but remain in the herd. They
go to the shore to drink some of the salty water, instead of salt.
All is of interest, even though the branding, the cutting off of big
slices from the ears, and castration, is rather cruel.
At lunch, for the first time, reindeer meat, a select steak. It is
tender and decidedly good. Has no special flavor and is poor in
fat, but tender and good.
Afternoon, once more to tlie corral, and then various things,
including a photograph of a little impromptu native group.
Supper once more on reindeer meat. This time prepared as a
sort of a stew with onions — again very good. But we were to leave
after supper for St. Michael and I see no intention to that effect.
Instead they all go once more to the corral to continue the work
until about 11 p. m. So I have to settle for the night, with some
hope that we may leave in the morning. We sleep four side by
.'ide in a tent 10 feet wide. Luckily they had a spare clean blanket
or two, and but one of the three snores, and he like a lady; also
the weather has cleared and is warmer, so the night is fairly good.
Wednesdaj% July 14. Morning bright, calm. Breakfast, and all
hurry off to corral without even any explanation- — just a few casual
words, from which I understand that we shall not go. So I write
whole forenoon, though feeling none too good about the delay.
Had I my own boat, as one should have in this country, all would be
different. As it is I am utterly helpless. At lunch speak to Mr.
Williams; and though not much willing, he half promises that we
may go to St. Michael tonight.
Afternoon. Walk 8 miles along the beach, to a cape and back,
looking in vain for traces of human habitation and collecting along
the beach what this offers, which outside of some odd, flat, polished
stones is but little. Come back near 6 — soon after supper — and hear
with much satisfaction that, after all, we will go to-night to St.
Michael.
hbdliCka] WEITEB'S trip ON YUKOIT 81
RESUME
So ends the Yukon and its immediate vicinity. What has been
learned ?
1. The great and easily navigable river, extending for many hun-
dreds of miles from west to east, could not but have played a ma-
terial part in the peopling of Alaska, and quite probably in that
of the continent, and all human movements along it must have left
some material remains. It seems, therefore, a justified inference that
the valley of the Yukon harbors human remains of much scientific
value.
2. Such remains, judging from the present conditions, were left
exclusively along the banks of the river, on the flood-safe elevated
platforms of the banks, and especially about the mouths of the
tributaries of the Yukon of those times.
3. But the banks and mouths of the past are seldom, if ever, those
of to-day. The river, with its currents, storms, and ice pack every
spring, is changing from year to year. It is ever cutting and eroding
in places, and building bars and islands or covering with flood silts
in others. In many stretches no one can be sure where the banks
were 500 or 1,000 years ago, not to speak of earlier periods.
4. The banks and islands of to-day, therefore, are for the most
part recent formations, in which it would be useless to expect any-
thing very ancient. And there is nothing like the successive ocean
beaches at Nome and elsewhere, which would guide exploration.
5. The right hilly side of the river alone seems to offer some hope
of locating some more ancient sites and remains; yet it is quite
certain that the river ran once far to the left, for all the vast flats
on that side are of its consti'uction ; so that the more ancient re-
mains of man may lie in that direction. But there everj'thing is,
from the point of view of archeology, a practically unexplorable
jungle and wilderness, and there is no one there who might make
accidental discoveries.
6. It would seem that the best hope for the archeologist along the
Yukon, so far as the more ancient remains are concerned, lies along
the tributaries of the stream, and that particularly at the old limits
of the more recently made lands.
7. Nevertheless the banks of the Yukon as they are now are not
wholl}' barren. Up from Tanana, at the Old Station, probably about
Ruby and Nulato, about Kaltag and the Greyling River, at Bona-
.sila. Holy Ci-oss and Ghost Creek, and at the Mountain village. Dog
village, Russian Mission, and doubtless a number of other sites, they
contain both cultural and skeletal remains that, if recovered, will be
invaluable to the anthropological history of these regions.
82 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ann. 46
8. The line of demarcation between tlie Indians of the Yukon and
the Eskimo, outside of language, is indefinite. Traces of old Eskimo
admixture are perceptible among the Indians far up the river, and
the cultures of the two peoples in many respect* merge into each
other; while among the Eskimo of the lower river and farther on
there are physiognomies that it would be hard to separate from the
Indian. Whether all this means simply extensive past mixture, or
whether, as would seem, the Alaska Indians as a whole are nearer
physically to the Eskimo than are the tribes in the States, remains
to be determined. Among the Athapascan Mescalero Apache, who
have reached as far south as New Mexico, a somewhat Eskimoid
tinge to the face, especially in young women, was by no means very
unusual 25 years ago when I studied this tribe. This problem will
be touched upon again in this volume.
9. All along the Yukon, from near Tanana (Old Station) to the
mouth of the river, in the Indian and in the Eskimo region, there pre-
vailed the same type of winter house, namely, a largely subterranean
room with a subterranean timnel or corridor entrance; and also a
similar type of summer dwelling, formerly a skin, now a canvas, tent.
The winter dwellings were built within of stout posts and covered
with birch bark and sod, looking from outside much like the present-
day Navaho hogan; while the pits left by them remind one of the
southwestern " pit dwellings," the kashims of the Pueblo kivas. As
a hogan, so these largely subterranean dwellings along the Yukon
had a smoke-air-and-light hole in the center of the top, a fireplace
in the middle of the floor, and benches (of heavy hewn planks in the
north) along the sides. Each village, furthermore, had at least one
larger structure of similar nature, the " kashim," or communal house.
All this may still be traced more or less plainly on the dead sites
along the Yukon, and houses as well as a kashim of this type were
seen at Kotlik and Pastolik, at the mouth of the river.
10. The native industry of the river presents also much similarity,
though there are differences.
Pottery, of much the same type and decoration, was made at
least as far as the lower middle Yukon.
Stone implements were made and used all along the river, and
were much alike. But the double-grooved, cupid-bow ax of the
Yukon Indian, hafted in the center and used for chipping rather
than cutting, is lower down replaced by the same ax, in which one
end has been broken off (or has not been finished), and which is
hafted as an adze ; or by oblong quadrilateral flat axes which have
not been found up the river.
The peculiar and apparently very primitive stone industry of
Bonasila is, it seems, just a development of local conditions — nature
HRDLR'KA] WRITER'S TRIP ON YUKON 83
of most available stone, and essentially hunting habit of the people
that resulted in many skins which called for numerous scrapers.
Nevertheless the site deserves a thorough further exploration.
There was apparently not much basketry along the river, the place
of the baskets being taken by the birch-bark dishes of the Indian and
the kantag or ingeniously made wooden dish of the Eskimo part of
the river.
Canoes among the Yukon Indians were mainly of birch bark,
while the Eskimo had mainly skin canoes.
11. Neither the Indians nor the Eskimo of the Yukon practiced
deformation of the head or of any other part of the body, or dental
mutilation. The Indians as well as the Eskimo occasionally pierced
the septum of the nose, for nose pieces, while the Eskimo cut on
each side a slit in the lower lip for the introduction of labrets. The
Eskimo cut their hair short in a characteristic way, reminding
strongly of cei'tain monks; the Indians left their hair long. But
at Anvik the Indians both cut their hair and wore labrets. They
also used the wooden dish.
12. From all the preceding it appears that there must have been
long and intensive contacts between the Yukon Eskimo and Indians;
that, through war or in peace, they became mutually admixed; and
that there were mutual cultural transmissions.
13. No further light for the present could be gained on the origin,
antiquity, or early migrations of the Yukon Indian. It was deter-
mined, however, that he represents but one main physical type, and
that this type is the same as that of the Indians of the Tanana and
most other Alaskan Indians of the present time.
14. Exceptional skeletal remains were washed out from the banlc
at Bonasila. They are of Indians (?), but appear to be not those
of the Yukon Indian of to-day. They present a problem which is
to be solved by further exploration of the site.
15. The Eskimo of the lower parts of the river are in general
better preserved and more coherent than the Indians. They are
more tractable people and are taking more readily to woi-k and
civilization.
16. These Eskimo show, in the majority of cases, fairly typical
Eskimo physiognomies. But their heads are not as those of the
northern and eastern members of the race. The head is less narrow,
less high, and has but now and then a suggestion of the scaphoid
form that is so characteristic of the Greenland, Labrador, or north-
ern Eskimo cranium; also, the angles of the jaws are less bulging
and the lower jaws themselves do not appear so heavy.
17. The Yukon Eskimo burials are in all essentials much like
those of the Indians up the river. Here again a cultural connection
84 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ann. 46
is very evident, in this case there having in all probability been an
adaptation of methods by the Eskimo from the Indians.
18. Archeological prospects along the delta flats occupied by the
Eskimo appear very limited.
St. Michael
Thursday, July 15. In the morning, after a good trip, reach St.
Michael — quite a town from a distance, with many boats on the
shore in front of it; but soon find that it is largely a dead city and
ships' graveyard, not harbor. With the gold rush over, and the Gov-
ernment railroad from Seward to the Xanana, men and business
have departed. Before the smnmer is over most of the large build-
ings and the fine large boats are to be demolished, and there will
be left but a lonely village.
Unload my collections on the old dock. The postman kindly comes
down from his place, which, with Mr. Williams's store, is far up on
the hill above the harbor, the boxes are weighed and stamped for
the parcel post, and relieved of them I go to the hotel and spend the
day in visiting the teacher, the marshal, Mr. Williams's store, where
I see a whole lot of recent Eskimo ceremonial masks decorated with
colors and feathers, and the wireless station to send a message to the
Institution. All native (Eskimo) character is almost gone from the
place, what remains being mainly civilized mix bloods; and also
little, if anj'thing, remains to be collected, particularly now when all
vacant land is thickly overgrown with grass and weeds. An occa-
sional skull appears, one having been seen recently on the beach and
one on Whale Island, but there is little besides, though things could
be found doubtless by excavation.
Items of interest in Mr. Williams's store, and also in that of the
N. C. Co., are various articles cut handsomely by the Eskimo
from walrus ivory, both fresh and " fossil " (old and nicely dis-
colored). There are beads, napkin rings, hairpins, cigar and ciga-
rette holders, and other objects, generally exceedingly well made and
decorated. It is, of course, well known that the Eskimo are very apt
in this work; it is not, however, so well known that every island
or village has certain specialties and types of decoration. This is
so true that an observer before long can tell in many instances just
where a given article has been made.
The fossil ivory industry is, it was soon learned, becoming a
serious detriment to archeological work in these regions; of which,
however, more later.
During the day I find that a small boat, the Silver Wave, belong-
ing to Lomen Bros., will leave St. Michael for Nome that same eve-
ning. As this suits me very well I engage a berth on the boat, help
hbdliCka] WKITER'S TRIP ON YL'KOX 85
to get my baggage ,on deck over a broken landing place, and get
ready to depart.
At 6 leave St. Michael. The Silver Wave is a tub — ^too short — am
told if it were of proper length they would have to have more help.
Result — very unsteady. Fortunately the weather is fair, and the
captain gives me a berth in his cabin. I had originally a stateroom,
right in the back, with three bunks or beds, so small that one could
barely get into the beds ; but there came two mix-breed women with
a girl and so they turned me out and put me in the " hole " — seven
bunks in an ill-ventilated cabin under the deck in the stern of the
ship. She is only about GO feet long by about 15 broad. As it is I
have a bunk in what would have been a well-ventilated little cabin,
had it not been for rough weather which came on later in the night
and which necessitated the closing of the window.
Friday, July 16. The rougher weather came and the boat began
to pitch and roll. Luckily I slept for the most part. At about 6.30
the captain called me to breakfast with him. I got up rather groggy
from the sea, but managed to wash my face and get to the little
messroom, where the cook stai'ted to bring eggs, bacon, coffee, etc. —
and then I had enough and had all I could do to reach my bunk
again without getting seasick. I was kept on the verge of it until
after 10, when we arrived off Nome.
This, however, meant no relief. There was no bay, no dock, no
shelter for even such a small boat, and so we anchored a few hundred
yards off the shore along which stretch the long line of unpainted
(mostly), weather-beaten frame dwellings of this northern capital.
By this time I barely keep my feet, but they lowered a heavy row-
boat, and several of us — there were four other men passengers — are
helped to tumble in. I get back, and to steady myself catch hold
of the borders of the boat, only for this the next moment to be
dashed against the larger boat with my hand between. It was almost
too much, the seasickness and added to it the very painful hurt.
Fortunately the fingers were not crushed, just bruised badly — they
might easily have been mashed to a pulp.
They row us in and we tumble out on the sand, and there is no one
to receive anybody or take any notice. However, after a while there
comes accidentally an old two-seated Ford. Three of us crowd in,
leave the few bulkier things we brought along on the beach un-
guarded, and are driven to the other end of the town, to the Golden
Gate Hotel.
This is a big old frame building, out of plumb in several directions.
There is no one in the spacious lobby. However, after a time some
one, not looking much like a proprietor — more like a groom at work —
comes out from somewhere and without much ado shows us each to a
room. Mine smells nuisty, old sweat and blankets and mould, and
86 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ann. 46
looks out on a dilapidated tin roof — must ask for another. Finally
get one " front " for $3 — the other was only $2.50. Musty too, but
fairly large, and with a double bed with, at last again, clean covers.
Unshaven — in the khaki worse for rain and work — with fingers
so sore they can not bear a touch, feverish, and head still dizzy — I go
to lunch. On my way stop at Coast Guard building — no one there ;
at the Roads Commission — office empty; at the Customs — not a soul.
But at the courthouse they tell me where Judge Lomen sometimes
lunches, and so I go there. It is near by — nothing hei'e is far dis-
tant— and so I soon sit at Mrs. Niebeling's, a justly famed Nome's
"for everybody," at a clean table and to a big civilized dinner.
Order reindeer roast — find it this time, in my condition, not much to
boast of — one could hardly tell it from similarly done beef — and
begin on the coffee when in comes a young man, asks me if I am the
doctor, and introduces himself as Mr. Alfred Lomen, the judge's
son; and in a minute or two in comes the judge himself, a kindly
man of something over 70. It all makes me feel a lot better, though
still weak. Have rest of lunch together and talk, but do not get
very far in anything that interests me; but the judge takes me to
the Catholic Fathers here, who have an orphanage somewhere near
where I want next to go, and leaves me with Father Post. The
father is kindly, but himself does not know much, and so makes
arrangements for me to meet next day Father Lafortune, who works
among the E.skimo.
Then I go once more to the Coast Guard building and meet Cap-
tain Eoss, in charge. The Bear, I learn, has just arrived here, and
is soon going north. She is my godsend, evidently. So Captain
Ross sends me over to see Captain Cochran. The meeting is good,
and I have a promise to be taken to t^e cape and some other stations.
But the Bear goes first to coal at St. Michael, and then will make
a visit to St. Lawrence Island. So I propose to go to Teller first,
see what I can of the Chukchee-Eskimo " battle field " near there,
and be taken from there by the Bear. The priests give me some
hope for getting there over an inland route, but later on tell me one
of the boats of the orphanage which is located in that region is away
and the other has broken down, so that there will be no possibility
of making the trip through the Salt Lake and to Teller. But the
Victoria (the Seattle boat to come to-night) will go to Teller. Un-
fortunately, if weather is rough or there are no passengers she will
not stop at Nome, so all is again uncertain. The Silver Wa.ve goes
northward next Monday, but I have a dread of her. All of which
is put down merely to show slightly what an explorer without a
boat of his own may expect in these regions.
Nome, Saturday, July 17. Poor night again — it surely seems to
be the fashion in Alaska. The Victoria came at night (or what
HRDLR-KA] WEITEE"S TRIP ox YUKON^ 87
should be night). The ramshackle big frame hotel, with partitions
so thin that they transmit every sound, got about 40 guests, and next
room to mine came to be occupied by two women who had visitors,
female and male, were taken out for a ride after 12 and returned
about 2 a. m. One of them, or their visitor, had a perpetual vocal
gush, the others chimed in now and then, and a strong male voice
added the bass from time to time, with old Fords noisily coming
and going outside, and people going up and down the stairs. So
sleep for some hours was out of the question. And there was nothing
to do about it.
After breakfast went to meet Father Lafortune, a Catholic mis-
sionary priest to the Eskimo, who speaks their language well and
who promised to accompany me to their habitations; and together
we spent the forenoon on one side of the town, among the natives
of the Diomedes, and most of the afternoon on the other end among
the people from King Island. It was a good experience, resulting
in seeing a good many of the Eskimo and getting some information,
a few photographs, and quite a few old specimens. Then we went to
the parsonage, where I got a few good photos from Father Lafor-
tune's collection. He is a matter-of-fact, always ready to help,
natural he-man, rather than a priest and teacher, and a great prac-
tical helper to the natives, who all are his friends.
Also saw Judge Lomen, arranged for lecture to-morrow, saw
Captain Ross about the Bear, and various other people; but there
is not much to be obtained here about old sites and specimens. Tele-
graphed Institution, and also to the Russian consul at Montreal for
permission to visit the Great Diomede Island. Evening packing.
Natives bring walrus ivory, some excellent pieces. Weather whole
day cloudy, threatening, occasional showers, cool but not cold.
Sunday, July 18. Heavy sleep 10 p. m. to 7 a. m., regardless of
a typewriter going in the next room and the women (now quieter,
however) on the other side.
Forenoon spent in talking with people and attending a little
service, for the natives mainly, at the Catholic Church of Fathers
Post and Lafortune. Poor, simple, but sincere and interesting.
After lunch more consultations, then a visit to bank where they
smelt gold dust (even to-day), and then a lecture on '* The Peopling
of America," at the courthouse. Well attended, and many came to
shake hands after. Then a dinner, with examination of a number
of interesting and valuable specimens, at Judge Lomen's. Among
other objects there is a duplicate, in ivory, of the l)roken double ax
from the Yukon, the two grooves and even the break being well
represented. Evening — examination of specimens at Reverend Bald-
win's. Cloudy, cool, threatening, but stormy weather abating.
88 ANTHROPOLOGICAL StTEVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ANN. 4(5
About Nome
Due to the delay with the Bear, the next few days until July 23
were spent at and about Nome. They proved more profitable than
was expected. Numbers of interesting specimens were found in the
possession of some of the dealers, and more of those of scientific
value were secured either through gift or by purchase for the
National Museum. These collections consisted of objects of stone —
i. e., spear points, knives, axes, etc. — but above all of utensils,
spear points, effigies, etc., some of them of remarkable arti.stry and
decoration, were made of walrus ivory that through age has turned
" fossil."
Among the stone objects were several axes made of the greenish,
hard nephrite which came from the " Jade Mountain " on the Kobuk
River. The objects from fossil ivory came principally from the St.
Lawrence Island, the Diomede Islands, Cape Wales, unknown parts
of the nearer Asiatic coast, and here and there from the Seward
Peninsula.
A large majority of these objects are now collected by the natives
themselves, who assiduously excavate the old sites, and are sold at
so much per pound as " fossil ivory " to crews of visiting boats or to
merchants at Nome and elsewhere, to be worked up into beads,
pendants, and other objects of semijewelry that find ready sale
among the whites.
In addition a certain part of these objects is reserved by the
natives, esiDecially those of the Diomede Islands, and worked up by
themselves. The more striking the coloration of the ivory, the more
desirable it is for the beads, etc., and the less chance of the object,
regardless of its archeological or artistic value, to be preserved.
The most artistic pieces, nevertheless, are usually disposed of sepa-
rately, bringing higher prices than could be obtained for beads.
In this way hundreds of pounds collectively of ancient imple-
ments, statuettes, etc., are recovei-ed each year from the old sites on
both the Asiatic and the American side of the Bering Sea, and are
cut up, their scientific value being lost. Most of the fossil ivory,
fortunately, consists of objects which, though showing man's work-
manship, are of relatively little scientific value; nevertheless it was
seen repeatedly that specimens of real archeological value and artistic
interest would be destroyed if their color and texture made them suit-
able for some of the higher-priced jewelry.
The Eskimo, as rejieatedly found later, have not the slightest hesi-
tation about excavating the old sites, and whatever they can not
use, which as a rule includes animal and human bones, and in fact
everything else except stone tools and ivory, is left in the excavated
soil and lost. The amount of destruction thus accomplished by the
hrdliCka] WEITER'S TRIP ON YUKOjST 89
women, children, and even men each year is large and promises to
grow from year to year as long as the supply lasts. This means that
unless scientific exploration of these old sites is hastened there will
be little left before long to study.
The fossil ivory trade lias become such that many of the officers
and the crews even of the visiting vessels, including the revenue cut-
ters, engage in buying the ivory from the natives and cutting it up in
their spare time into beads and other ornaments. A captain of a well-
known boat who with his crew visited in the summer of 1926 a small
island on which there is an extensive frozen refuse heap containing
many bones and tools of the natives who once occupied the place,
exclaimed, " Gad, there's $50,000 of ivory in sight."
The boat crew t«ok away about " 2 bushels " of it, or all that could
be removed from the extensive frozen pile. I saw some of this ivory
later, all cut up, but with a number of the pieces still showing old
hiunan handiwork, and some beads made of other parts of the lot
were brought later to my office in Washington.
If American archeology and ethnologj' are to learn what they need
in these regions it is absolutely essential that they take early steps
for a proper exploration of the old sites, besides which every effort
should be made by the intelligent traders, missionaries, teachers, and
officials to save the more artistic and characteristic pieces of human
workmanship in the old ivory, and bring them with such data as
may be available to the attention of scientific men or institutions.
It would in fact be of much value, and the writer has suggested
this to the Governor of Alaska, to establish a local museum at Nome,
where such objects could be gathered and saved to science.
ABORIGINAL REMAINS
The coast of which Nome is now the human center, up to Cape
Wales, together with the nearer islands, was occupied by the Maigle-
miut (Zagoskin), or Mahlemut (Dall et al.) subdivision of the
Eskimo. They were a strong group, and great traders. During
the Russian times the Aziags, from what is now the Sledge Island,
with probably others from the coast, visited yearly foi' trading pur-
poses as far as St. Michael and the Yukon, while the Wales people
were known to trade up to fairly recently as fai- as Kotzebue, both
at the same time having trading connections with Asia.
Of these natives, with the exception of those at Wales, there
remains but little. On Sledge Island there are only two dead vil-
lages, and on the coast from Port Clarence to far east of Nome there
is not a single existing native settlement. A few remnants of the
people live in Nome, but they have lost all individuality.
88253"— 30 7
90 ANTHROPOLOGICAL, SURVEY IN ALASKA [bth. ann. 46
Dead sites are known to exist from west to east, at Cape Wooley ;
at the mouth of the Sonora or Quartz Creek; at the mouth of the
Penny River — some natives are said to still go to fish there in sum-
mer; at the mouth of a small river 3 miles east of Nome; both west
(a larger village) and east (a small site) of Cape Nome; and 18
miles east of Nome (the " Nook " village).
Most of these sites have been peopled within the memory of the
oldest inhabitants.
Thanks to the kind aid of the Reverend Doctor Baldwin, I was
able to visit several of the sites east of Nome, more particularlj' the
Nook village, and it was still possible to find two skeletons and a
skull on these sites.
The Nook site must have been one of considerable importance.
It was an especially large village, or rather two near-by villages, in
one of which I counted upward of 30 depressions, remnants of the
semisubterranean houses with vestibules, such as are elsewhere de-
scribed from the Yukon.
Here a clear illustration was had of what changes on sites of this
nature may be wrought in a short time by the elements.
Fifteen years ago, I was assured, there were still many burials
and skeletal remains scattered along the coast near the Nook village.
Then in 1913 came a great southwestern storm, which at Nome
ripped up the cemetery and carried away some coffins with bodies,
scattering them over the plains in the vicinity. Since that storm
not a vestige remains of any of the burials or bones near the large
Nook village. On prolonged examination I found nothing but sands
overgrown with the usual coast vegetation. Everything had been
carried away or buried and the pits of the houses were evidently
themselves largely filled in.
The burials on this coast west of Golovnin Bay were evidently all
of a simpler nature than those on Norton Sound and the Yukon.
There is plenty of driftwood, but for some reason this was not hewn
into boards with which to make burial boxes. The dead were merely
laid upon and covered with the driftwood, though this was done,
as later seen on Golovnin Bay, rather ingeniously. One of the two
skeletons found near Cape Nome, an adult male, lay simply among
the rocks on the lower part of the slope of the hill.
Old sites, though often small, may be confidently looked for along
all these coasts in the shelter of every promontory, at the mouth of
each stream, and on the spits which separate the ocean from inland
lagoons (as in the case of the Nook village).
Nome— Bering Strait — Barrow
Friday, July 23. Received word to be on the Bear, which ar-
rived yesterday, before 10 o'clock this morning. Due to the shallow-
HRDLICKA] WRITER'S TRIP ON YUKON 91
ness of the water the boat, though drawing only 18 feet, stands
far out from the shore and makes a pretty sight, looks also quite
large in these waters where there is nothing above a few hundred
tons.
Am soon at home. The captain's cabin, with thi-ee beds, is nicely
furnished, but has the disadvantage of being situated at the very
rear of the vessel, above and beyond the sei'ew. There is another
passenger, a teacher-nurse for Barrow. I take the isolated bunk on
the right, and this becomes my corner for the next six weeks.
Toward 11 a. m. the wind begins to freshen, soon after which we
leave for St. Lawrence Island. After midday the wind increases
considerably, waves rise, and the Bear begins to plunge. Before
the afternoon is over the wind blows a half gale and we are being-
tossed about a gi-eat deal. Have to take to bed. The boat is being
tossed up and down and in all directions. Resist in vain, then at
last become ill, and this passes into a long spell of about the worst
seasickness I have ever endured. There were a good many sick on
the Bear that evening and night.
Saturdaj^, July 2-1. AVind and water slowly quieting down, and
the boat is approaching Cape Chibukak off St. Lawrence Island,
where is located the main of the two villages of the island, known
as Gambell. The Bear gradually approaches to within about a
half mile of the shore, where we anchor. The water here is quieter,
and before long a large baidar (native skin boat) is shoved off from
the land and approaches our boat. This is the usual procedure
when the sea permits. There are no docks, and closer in there is
danger from rocks and shallows. There are a number of natives
in the boat, together with the local teacher, and each one, including
the teacher, carries a smaller or larger bag of fossil ivory, various
articles made of fresh ivory, and some other objects, for sale to
the officers and crew of the boat. They climb on our deck, where
(hey evidently feel quite at home, and in a few minutes carry on
a busy trade and barter with everyone. I succeed in getting a
fine fossil ivory pick; but the main supply had evidently been pre-
empted and I only see it later in the possession of the officers, who
kindly let me have what is of less value to them and more to
science.
Some of the Eskimo bring, in addition to the ivory, other articles
for sale — fish, birds, and the meat of the reindeer, which are for the
ship's messes and constitute very welcome additions to the diet.
Besides all this the natives also frequently bring skins of foxes and
even bear, which also find buyei-s. In return the boats carry off the
mail and such supplies as they have obtained by barter or purchase.
These visits are mutually enjoyable as well as profitable occasions.
92 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ann. 46
and afford one the opportiinitj^ of seeing many of the natives, even
if prevented, as in tliis case, from visiting their village.
The Eskimo impress one here as in every further locality as a
lively, cheerful, and intelligent lot, good traders, and advancing
in many ways in civilization. The latter is perhaps especially true
of the St. Lawrence Eskimo, who from what was seen now and
later must have had especially good missionaries and teachers as
well as a considerable freedom from bad influences from the outside.
Savonga
About 40 miles east-southeast of Gambell is the second and smaller
village of the St. Lawrence Island, known as Savonga, which was
the object of our next visit. It was here that we were to buy two
or three reindeer carcasses, the animals being killed and dressed for
us by the natives in an astonishingly short time. The little village
is prettily situated on the green flat of the elevated beach. It con-
sists of less than a dozen modern small frame dwellings. One of
these, that of the headman, Sapilla (who regrettably died during the
following winter), is of two stories — a unique feature for an Eskimo
dwelling in these waters. Here we were visited by three boats and
the previous scenes were repeated, only, due to the proximity of
a rich old site, there were more objects of old ivory.
The captain made me acquainted with Sapilla. whom I found
remarkably white-man-like in behavior. Then the shijj doctor, not
feeling very well after yesterday's storm, filled my pockets with
tooth forceps and I was taken to the shore, to see the women and
children who would not venture out and to attend to any tooth ex-
traction that might be needed.
We were considerably farther from the shore than even at Gam-
bell, but I was sent on one of our motor boats and so it did not take
long to land. Upon landing we came to bright and clean and
smiling little groups of women and children, full of color in their
cotton dresses, and I was soon in one of their houses. All these
dwellings were built by the Eskimo themselves, and it was a most
gratifying surprise to find them as clean and wholesome as any
similar dwelling of whites could be. Moreover, these houses were
furnished with stoves, chairs, tables, crockery and other utensils
exactly as if they were those of a good class of whites, with the smell
oif the seal, which as a rule is so clinging to and characteristic of
the Eskimo house, barely perceptible.
It was a busy and interesting hour that I spent at Savonga. I
saw probably all the inhabitants that were at home; pulled five
teeth — the teeth of these quite civilized people are no more as sound
and solid as were those of their fathers and mothers — and found and
HRDLicKA] WRITER'S TRIP ON YUKON 93
purchased cheaply many smaller objects of fossil ivory, which they
excavate from a near-by old site.
These objects are obtained from an old village located on the coast
about 4 miles farther east, on or near the North Cape, visible from
our boat. The natives excavate in this site as far as it thaws every
summer, and find many objects. They, moreover, make an occa-
sional trip to the two little rocky Punuk islands located about 12
miles south of the East Cape of the St. Lawrence, which, though
accurately charted by the Russians as early as 1849, yet until the
summer of 1926 remained practically unknown. On one of these
islands there is now known to exist an extensive frozen refuse heap,
containing large quantities of old ivory implements as well as other
objects of scientific interest.
The land visit was a great tonic after the wild and mean preced-
ing night, and I did not relish at all the Bear's whistle calling us
away. What a great thing it would be if a revenue cutter could for
just one season be given to science !
Sunday, July 25. Left St. Lawrence 9.30 last night, sea quieting.
We are now passing, on our right. King Island, isolated roclcy mass.
Day fair, cool, water getting smooth.
About 50 miles north one can now see plainly Cape Prince of
AVales (pi. 5, a), and to the left, hazy, the two Diomedes. We are
now 95 miles from St. Lawrence. On really clear days one could see
from here even the Asiatic heights. Therefore, from the latter on a
clear day one sees the Diomedes, the Cape, the highlands beyond,
and King Island, while a little farther south there is on such a day
a good view from Asia of the St. Lawrence Island. All this was in
good weather easily reached from Asia and must have been utilized
from the earliest time in passing onward from one continent to
the other.
We can now see also much of the coast in the direction of Teller
and the York Mountains behind.
From hour to hour there is growing on one a profound apprecia-
tion that the Bering Sea was a most favorable amphitheater of
migration, particularly from the less hospitable Asia eastward into
America. And practically the whole trend of native movements to
this day is from Asia towai'd America.
Later in the day, now a fine, bright summer day, arrive off Wales.
Here again anchor far out. Last year the Bear grounded here and
our captain is apprehensive. Wales is a straggly village — or two
villages — located on a large, flat sandy spit, dotted with water pools,
and projecting fi-om the Seward Peninsula toward Asia. Near by
are old sites, probably of much archeological value, and in these
for some weeks now excavations have been carried on by Dr. D.
94 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [bth.ann.4G
Jenness, of the Victoria Memoiial Museum of Ottawa. Here also
is located an exceptionally educated and observant teacher, Mr. Clark
M. Garber.
A big umiak comes to us with many natives bringing the usual
trade, and on it, much to my pleasure, are both Doctor Jenness and
Mr. Garber. Doctor Jenness asks to go with us to the Little Diomede
to do some work there. He has had encouraging experience here,
finding evidences of occupation dating many centuries back, and
has collected some valuable specimens, including a few with the
fine old curved-line decoration. Mr. Garber gives me some valuable
information about the skeletal remains of this place and engages
to collect for me, who can not leave the boat, a few boxes of these
specimens, which promise is fulfilled later.
The natives are a jolly and sturdy lot, even though they bear, and
that since their earliest contacts with whites, a rather bad reputa-
tion. That this is founded in some fact, at least, is told us in the
annals of the Kussians, and is also shown by the little structure on
the hillside off which we are anchored. This has a tragic and at the
same time quaint history. It is the grave of a missionary Doctor
Thornton, who was killed, we are told, by two local young fellows.
These were apprehended, sentenced to die, and were to be shot by
their relatives, which all evidently found quite just. On the ap-
pointed day they were taken out to the burial ground, helped to
prepare their burials, one asked yet to be allowed to go to the village
to get a drink, went and returned, and then both were shot. The
executioner of the boy who went to get the drink is said to have been
his uncle.
The Diomedes
Late that night we leave slowly for the Diomede Islands, the
nearer of which is only about 18 miles distant. The two islands
lie, as is well known, just about in the middle of the Bering Strait.
One is known as the larger or Russian, the other as the smaller
or American Diomede. The boundary line between Russia and the
United States passes between the two. Both islands have been oc-
cupied since far back by the Eskimo. To-day there is one small
village on the American and two small settlements on the Russian
island.
July 26. Up at 5.40, breakfast 6, and off in one of our staunch
motor boats, with Jenness, for the Little Diomede. Countless birds
flying in .streams about the island.
The island is just a big rock, with barren flat top and steep
sides, covered where inclination permits with great numbers of larger
and smaller granite bowlders. There is neither tree nor brush here.
The village, if it deserves that name, with a school, occupies an
HEDLiOKAj WEITEE'S TRIP ON YUKON 95
easier slope, facing the larger island across a strait seemingly about
a mile broad. There are but a few dwellings, due to local necessities
and conditions built above ground and outside of stone. One that
was entered showed a dark foreroom, a storage attic, and a cozy
somewhat lighted living and sleeping back room, entered through
a low and narrow entrance. The houses seem to be built on old
debris of habitations, and there are refuse heaps, one of which was
eventually worked in by Doctor Jenness, though without much
profit.
The bowlder-covered slope above the village was the burial ground
of the natives. (PI. 5, h.) Unfortunately most of the skeletal re-
mains have been collected by a former teacher and then left and lost.
With Doctor Jenness and the present teacher, himself an Eskimo, we
climb from bowlder to bowlder and collect what remains. The work
is both risky to the limbs and difficult in other respects. The large
bowlders are piled up manj- deep; and there being little or no soil,
there are all sorts of holes and crevices between and underneath the
stones. Deep in these crevices, completely out of sight or reach, nest
innumerable birds (the little auk), and their chatter is heard every-
where. But into these impenetrable crevices also have fallen many
of the bones and skulls of the bodies that have been " buried " among
the bowlders, and also doubtless many of the smaller articles laid
by the bodies.
The burials here were made in any suitable space among the rocks.
The body was laid in this space, without any coffin and evidently
not much clothing. About it and on the rocks above were placed
various articles. We found clay lamps, remnants of various wooden
objects, the bone end pieces of lances, and finally one or two pieces
of driftwood to mark the place. Here the bodies decayed and what
was left had either tumbled or was washed by rain into the crevices.
It was suggested, however, that much may have been taken hj dogs
and foxes. Some of the skulls and here and there one of the larger
bones remained, to eventually be covered by moss and eroded. With
the help of Doctor Jenness and the teacher I was able to find five
male and seven female crania in fair condition, wliich will be of
much value in the study of this interesting contingent of the Eskimo.
No evidence in the graveyard among the rocks of any great an-
tiquity, nothing more than perhaps a few scores of years. But traces
of older burials would surely be completely lost among the rocks,
though they may lie in the deep crevices and holes where they can
not be reached.
Upon return am treated to a cup of good hot coffee — never can
get a real hot cup of coffee on the boat — and excellent bread, made
by the Eskimo wife of the teacher ; and see his family of fine chubby
96 ANTHROPOLOGICAL, SURVEY IN ALASKA [bth. ann. 46
children. Can not help but kiss his girl of about 10 — she is so
fresh and innocent and pretty. Obtain also from the wife of the
teacher a good old hafted " jade " ax, though she hesitates much
to part with it — it used to belong to her grandmother; and from
the teacher himself a number of interesting articles in old ivory.
Leave Doctor Jenness. Have learned to like him much, both for
his careful work and personally, in our short association; and at 11
a. m. return to the boat.
Cold, but calm and sunny. Sit on boxes at the very end of the
good old Bear. See Asia, the two Diomedes, and Seward Peninsula,
all in easy reach, all like so many features of a big lake. Pass around
Greater Diomede.
There never could have been any large settlement on the Diomede
Islands — they are not fit for it. The Great Diomede has just two
mediocre sites, which are occupied now each by about half a dozen
dwellings. A small old settlement, a few stone houses, has also
once existed. I am told, on the elevated top of the larger island op-
posite the Little Diomede. On the latter only the one visited — every-
vrhere else the steep slopes or walls come right down into the water,
and there is even no landing possible (or only a precarious one at
best) except where we landed. The old natives of the Little Diomede
are said to have believed that another village had once existed farther
out from the present site and that it has become submerged. The
evidence cited (told by the native teacher) is not conclusive, and
no indication of such a settlement could be seen from the beach. But
in front and possibly beneath the native houses, in the old refuse,
there may be remnants of older dwellings.
Just passed from Monday to Tuesday, and then back to Monday,
all in a few hours — the day boundary. We are now just north of the
Bering Strait and see all beautifully, in moderate bluish haze.
A grand panorama of utmost anthropological interest. A big lake,
scene of one of the main migrational episodes of mankind. Sea
just wrinkling some, day calm, mostly sunny, mildly pleasant,
with an undertone of cold.
How trivial feel here the contentions about the possibilities of
Asiatic migrations into America. There can be no such problem
with those who have seen what we now are witnessing. Here is a
great open pond which on such days as this could be traversed by
anyone having as much as a decent canoe. As a matter of fact it
has always been and is still thus traversed. (PI. 6, a.) The Chuk-
chee carried on a large trade with America, so much so that we find
the Russians complaining of their interfering with their trade.
(PI. 6, J, c.) The Diomede people stand in connection on one hand
with the northeastern Asiatics and on the other hand with the whites
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 5
n, Cape Prince of \\ ulf^ Irum iIil- ^uiuiiea^i. i,A, H . rj
I, \ lUage ;md (.cmelcTi duliu, LlUk' Diuiiiuili. >A. LI., 1926)
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 6
a, Asiatics departiui: for Siberia from the Little Diomede Island. (Photo by D. Jenness, 1926)
(), "('hukchis" loading their boat witli goods on Little Diomede Island, before departure for Siberia.
(Photo by D. Jenness, 1926)
c, " Chiikchis" loading their boat with goods on Little Diomede Island, before departure for Siberia.
(Photo by D. Jenness, 1926)
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 7
0, Eskimos from East L'ape arriving at Nome, Alaska
b, East Cape ol Asia (to tlie southward;. U'hoto by Joe Bernard)
•<
§
3
Z
2
<
>■
8
D
CO
HRDLiOKAl WRITER'S TRIP ON YUKON 97
as fai- as Nome, where most of them go every summer to sell their
ivory and its products and bring back all sorts of provisions. And
in the same way the King Islanders come every summer to Nome,
on the east end of which, as the Diomedes on the west, they have
their summer habitations. (PI. 7, a, h.) Only a year or two ago.
the natives tell, an Eskimo woman of St. Lawrence Island set out
alone in a canoe with her child to visit a cousin on the Asiatic coast,
60 miles distant, and i-eturned safe and sound after the visit was
over.
To bed dressed — the captain tells me we shall soon be at Shish-
maref , on the north shore of the Seward Peninsula, and that he will
have me called, if I want to visit the village.
Awake 11.30 p. m. At 11.4.5 word comes that we have arrived and
a boat is getting ready. On tleck in five minutes. Of course it is
still light — there is no real night any more in these regions.
Have a cinnamon roll — the night specialty for the crew on the
Bear — and a bowl of coffee. The natives, two boats full, already
coming, and a fine full-blooded lot they show themselves to be. They
are accompanied hj Mr. Wegner, a big, pleasant young teacher.
Leave natives trading and set off in ship's boat. The Bear is
anchored about ly^ miles off. Fortunately fairly quiet or we should
not be able to go ashore. Teacher and a young English-speaking
native go with us. We have the launch and the skin whaleboat.
Anchor first off shallow beach and transfer into the skin boat for
the landing.
Tuesday, July 27. It is about 12.30 a. m. Many native women,
youngsters, and some men gather about us at the school. Talk to
them — explain what I want, which is mainly skulls and bones — all
quite agieed. Take two young natives, some bags, and proceed to
where they lead me.
Find, about half a mile from the present village, a big and im-
portant old site, which existed up to the white man's time. But
dunes on which burials were made and house sites have been largely
graded by a fox-farm keeper and trader, Mr. Goshaw. He had
gathered many skulls — shows me a photo of two rows, at least 40 —
will not tell what he did with them. Says he sent " many things to
the Smithsonian," but can give no details, " and to the universities,"
but will not mention which. Also "J3uried a lot." Bad business.
Gathering what is possible from the debris thrown out by the
Eskimo woi'king for the fox farm, we proceed rapidly from mound
(dune) to mound. Find burials still on the surface in situ — i. e.,
nearly buried by the rising carj^et of the vegetation — but skulls gone.
Many of those on remaining heaps imperfect, but at least something
can be saved. Collect all that is worth collecting. See Mr. Goshaw —
98 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SUEVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ann. ie
get but little out of hira. Donates a few archeological specimens of
no great value — has no more.
We hurry on to the other village and burial ground, almost a mile
west of the present settlement. Find only a small pile of bones,
with one whole male skeleton of fairly recent date.
Then back, as fast as possible, the Indians carrying the bags with
bones, and load on boat. My shoes and feet have long since become
thoroughly wet, after which Mr. Wegner loaned me wool socks and
native shoes that protected my feet. But now these must be left
behind and I have to get into my wet, cold shoes — socks too wet.
Officers in a hurry to get back. It is now 3.00 a. m. ; the sun rose
about 1.30. Pay my men, change shoes, photograph women (pi. 8)
and then men — all pleasant and willing. See a few poor articles of
archeological nature — not worth getting; and after a hearty hand-
shake with the teacher we take off through the somewhat rougher
water to the whaleboat. then on to the motor boat and the ship. Ar-
rive with six bags of specimens, reaching boat just a little after 4.
Sleepy captain meets us, but luckily shows no grudge, though this
stop and his loss of sleep were essentially for me. Tliongh it would
seem they could have readily waited for our going ashore until morn-
ing, or have given me a little more time at the Diomedes, which
would have brought us here later. Am too much awake now and
worked up to sleep. Lie down a while but fully awake. Total sleep
last night 21/2 hours. But it was worth it, except for the vandalism.
Pack — inadequate boxes — until 3.30 p. m. \\Tiole collection made
last night put in order. But back and knees stiff. Weather two-
thirds fair (my own estimate), some wind, sea choppy. Lie down but
can not sleep.
At 5.30 off Kotzebue. Due to shallowness of water must anchor
far out of sight. At 6 go to land in ship's larger launch. Waves
rather bad. much tossing about and spray, have to get behind the
canvas canopy that is raised over one seat. It is 15 miles from where
the Bea/' is anchored to the Kotzebue village — over two hours of (at
times) rather violent to.ssing up and down and side wise. Run for
a part of the time not far from beach — a number of isolated, orderly
fish camiD.s — lots of fish drying. Wonder at not getting seasick
again — it must be the open air or difference of movement.
Kotzebue village lies around sj point on a not very high, flat bank,
facing the bay of three rivers (Selavik, Kobuk, Noatak). As we ap-
proach I count over 50 clean tents of Eskimos, about 15 frame houses
and stores, and many skin and other boats on beach or in water.
Many natives hurry to meet us.
Go ashore. Thomas Berryman, the trader, with the local judge
and two or three other whites come also to meet us. After getting ac-
hrdliOka] WEITEB'S TRIP ON YUKON 99
qiiainted inquire about possibility of exploring the Kobuk and reach-
ing the Kovukuk and Yukon. But all that I learn is uncertain and
discouraging. There are but few native villages on the river, all Es-
kimo; and higher up the water is rapid, necessitating much hauling
of the boat by the natives, which is costly; upon which follow three
or four days' portage. The trip would cost much, and no loads
over 40 pounds to a man could be carried.
Only a few old sites hereabouts are known by those whom I have
a chance to ask. Say there is a somewhat important one at Cape
Krusenstern. Mr. Berryman has from tliere a big stone (slate)
lance. He also has a huge j^iece of serpentine, over 80 pounds in
weight, with a moderate depression in top and some cutting (old
native work), said to have been used as a lamp. Wants to keep this
and si^earhead, but donates an old rusty tin box full of smaller
things and promises to obtain skulls for us; and I get a similar
promise from a man (probably one of Mr. Berr3'man's storekeepers)
from farther up the counti'y.
Later meet here Mr. Chance, the school superintendent of these
parts; a young and not prepossessing man, but one who steadily
improves on closer acquaintance. Learn from him of a skeleton
recently dug out from the ground under the schoolhouse.
See many natives, all Eskimo, good looking, clean, and kind.
Some mix bloods, but the majority pure. Good to moderate stature,
well proijortioned though not fat body, medium to somewhat^ lighter
brown color, physiognomies less typical Eskimo than hitherto and
often strongly like Indian. Too late and dusky to photograph.
Go to see the teacher and find that the skeleton he dug out was
placed by him in an open box, pushed as far as possible under the
rafters of the floor of the schoolhouse and covered with gravel and
earth. There are four of us — start hurriedly digging for it, remove
with shovel, hoe and arms about a ton of the " filling " — and can not
reach the box. It is 10 p. m., the wind rising, officer comes and
urges me to get back to the boat. So must leave with promise that
the box will be gotten out and await me on our return from the
north. Have by this time decided the best policy will be to go
with the Bear as far as she may go. Load empty boxes, some pack-
ing— and one of the young white men who have been digging with
us runs up from the distant schoolhouse announcing that they
" struck "' the box. Urge him to run back as fast as he can and get it.
Luckily the postmaster and a good many others who came to see us
off delay us; also the transfer of the mail and boxes to the larger
boat. Finally, after a good many anxious looks, I see at last the
two young men appear, one with a wheelbarrow on which is the box
of bones. Bones look not very old, and Eskimoid at first sight, but
100 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ann. 46
take box, which contains a good deal of gravel, carry it througli the
very interested Eskimo to the boat, all get in, hurried good-bys to
everybody, and we are off.
A two and a half hours' trip once more, and the last more than
half of it very rough. Such tossing and dancing and dipping and
twisting, with the spray, fortunately not cold, shooting high up at
times, or an angry wave splashing over. But the boat is large and
strong and so eventually we reach the Beai% which was completely
out of sight until about an hour after we started, and in a few min-
utes off we go to the north. A little fruit, bed. and know nothing
more until near 7 the next morning. It was a long day — over 25
hours in a stretch without a wink. Yet did not feel bad; the work
and good nature of people about and those met with, with some
success, are good tonics.
Wednesday, July 28. All of us have to consult the calendar to be
sure of the day and date.
Sort and wash Berryman's specimens — a nic€ lot of little things,
mainly of stone, slate, flint, etc.
Then go after my bones. Find the spray made the earth and
gravel in the box thoroughly wet, so that it is necessary carefully to
excavate all the bones. Find a male, rather short-statured, typically
Eskimo. May have been a burial of the Russian times. Wire for all
details. Must dry bones. Meanwhile try to catch up with notes.
Toward evening expect to be in another village. Weather fair.
Have passed the Arctic Circle during night, but it is not cold nor in
any way strange here. Sunset coloring lasts long and passes into
that of sunrise — no real night, no stars; but moon seen late at night
and far to the south.
May this weather continue, for in rough weather landing at any of
these places — ^there are no harbors whatever and always shallows and
bars and shoals — would be extremely risky or impossible and my
work, for which I feel ever more eager, would suffer. If only I could
see all worth seeing, and stay a little longer when I find what I am
after.
We reach Kevalina. It is just a schoolhouse and about seven sod
houses. Only a native school teacher, from whom I do not get much.
No remains or old site very near, but an old village, with *' good
many things," exists on the Kevalina River within a few hours' dis-
tance (by canoe) from Kevalina.
Natives bring old adzes (mounted- by them, however), and a har-
poon handle from the old site — bought.
Spend rest of day in washing, sorting, and packing specimens.
After supper am invited to the officers' room and given by Lieut.
M. C. Anderson a fine selection of old ivory harpoon heads and other
hrdliCka] WEITER^S TEIP ON YTTKON 101
things. Many of these are from the old site on the St. Lawrence
Island, and especially from little isles off that island named Punuk.
All this strengthens the importance of those islands for regular
exploration.
Thursdaj', July 29. In anticipation of being called up again dur-
ing the night, at Point Hope, which is evidently another important
spot for archeological exploration, for the natives are said to bring
many old articles for sale each year, I do not undress and go to bed
eaidier, but have, because of the anticipation, closeness of air, and a
cat jumjDing on my face just as I am dozing off, a very poor night;
and no call came after all. In the morning there are cold showers,
the sky is much clouded, and the wind keeps on blowing from the
north-northwest, threatening, the officers say, to drive the ice toward
this shore, which would be bad for us. It is cool and disagreeable.
We have anchored to the south of the spit on which stands the vil-
lage and can not unload or get ashore. Nor can the natives come
here to us.
The village consists of a schoolhouse, a little mission (Rev. F. W.
Goodman), an accumulation of houses, semisubterraneans, and tents.
A few tents are also seen a good distance to the right — a reindeer
camp. Otherwise there is nothing but the long, low, sandy, and
grassy spit projecting far out into the ocean.
Later. The north-northwest still blows, and so the ship has to
a'nchor to the south of the long. spit on the point of which is the vil-
lage. Of this but little can be seen, just a few houses, and it seems
near and insignificant.
The captain is evidently waiting again for the natives to come out,
and I am helpless. Finally, however, a boat is made ready and I
am taken to the shore with the mail. This is piled on the beach, and
with two officers we start to walk toward the dwellings opposite to
us, which are the mission. Heavy walking in the loose sand and
gravel of the steep beach, and as we ascend it is seen the buildings
which seemed so near to the shore are about a mile or more away.
A man coming toward us — the missionary, Archdeacon Goodman.
Tell him my mission ; says ho has some business on the ship, but will
come, and there will be no trouble in helping me to a " good deal of
what I want," which sounds fine.
In the absence of the missionary, go to see the teacher. The school
is over a mile in the direction toward the point. Find him at home
and helpful. In 15 minutes, with his aid, engage two native boys,
give two sacks to each, and send them out over the long flats (old
beaches) to pick up every skull and jaw they can find. They go
cheerfully, and we depart shortly after to see Mr. La Voy, a movie-
picture man, who has been staying here for some time making movie
102 / NTKROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [bth. ann. 4g
pictures of the natives, and at the same time collecting all the
antiquities they could bring him. We go to see his collection, but
find him not home ; has gone for mail. The rare mail in these regions
is, of course, the most important of events. So back to the school
(a good many rods from the sod house part of the native village to
the left), and then — it is now near noon — to the mission, a good
mile from the school and more from the village.
Road staked on one side with whale ribs about 2 rods distance.
Flats on both sides show many parts of bleached human bones. They
are a part of the old extensive burial grounds. Unfortunately, about
two years ago the predecessor of the present missionary had most of
the skulls and bones collected and put in a hole in the new cemetery,
now seen in the distance to the right of the mission. This new
burial place is surrounded by a unique whale-rib fence. Reach mis-
sion, but no one there. Does not look good. Try one building and
door after another — no one — learn later that the missionary has no
family. Twenty minutes to 1. Nothing remains but to go back to
the school for some lunch. So leave my raincoat, camera, and re-
maining bags (expecting to do main work on the buried bones) and
hurry back to the school, which I reach just after 1, and, thanks to
their late clock, just in time for a modest lunch, but with a real hot
cup of coffee. Queer that the only genuinely hot cups of coffee I
got on this journey were furnished by Eskimo — for Mrs. Moyer, the
wife of the teacher, is an Eskimo.
Then comes the mail and Mr. La. Voy, and I go to see the latter's
collection.
Find a mass of old and modern material, of stone, bone, and
wood. All the older things are from an old site on the point. It is
an important and large site, as found later (at least 50 houses), which
the natives (getting coffee, tea, chewing gimi, chocolate, candy, etc.,
for what they find) are now busy digging over and ruining for
scientific exploration. Women dig as well as men, confining them-
selves to from 2 to 3 uppermost feet that have thawed ; but even thus
finding a lot of specimens. Bones, of course, and other things are
left and no observation whatever on the site is made. It is a pity.
Mr. La Vo}^ donates some stone objects, mainly scrapers, and then
I go with a native he emijloys to the '' diggings." Find much already
turned over- — one woman actually digging — but very much more still
remaining. Examine everything — site evidently not ancient but of
the richest — and then return with the woman to get some of her
" cullings."
On the way am called by a man whose sod house (semisubter-
ranean) we pass. We sit on the top of his house and soon establish
a regular trading place, with a big flat stone as a counter. One
HBDLICKA] WRITER'S TRIP ON YUKON 103
after another the native women and men bring out a few articles,
good, Ijad, or indifferent, hiy them on the stone, I select what I want,
lay so much money against the articles, and usually get them.
Everybody in the best of humor. The natives surely enjoy the
sport, and so do I. if only I was not hurried. Thus trade for at
least an hour until my pockets are bulging. Then once more to the
school and once more to the mission. In the latter get my things,
as nobody is there yet. Doctor Goodman having doubtless been de-
layed on the boat. I hear that there are prospects of both him and
Mr. La Voy going north with us on a little vacation. Send the coat
with S23are bags to the school by a native I meet, while I go to look
at the rib cemetery and photograph it. Find the bones have been
interred in its middle and a low mound raised over them, so there
is for the moment notliing to do there. Therefore go over the
plain a little farther, picking up a few odds and ends, a damaged
skull, and finally, from a fairly recent burial box. a fine skull with
its lower jaw. Then attempt to pass a pool of water and sink in
the mud to above my rubber boots, so that the icy water runs in,
wetting me thoroughly, and gurgling henceforth with every step
in the shoes. Try to get these off but can not. Tlie feet must be
congested. So spill out all I can by raising the feet, and then do
some hard walking which takes away the cold.
Evening, thougli no dusk approacliing. Sit on gravel to empty
more water from shoes, but can still hardly get one off. And just as
I succeed I see. across another long pool, two men, one with a cap of
an officer of the ship, waving their arms, evidently signifying to
me that the time is up and I am to return. Call to them to wait.
Impossible to make them hear me or for me to hear them. All
here is elusive — enchantedlike — distances, sounds. Finally they
stop. I catch up with them after passing a broad ditch and learn
that the ship is about to sail and they are waiting for me. My coat,
however, and collections are still at tlie school, over a mile away,
so once more it is necessary to hurry to the school and then back
to the ship. So things go wlaen promises go wrong and one is
alone under a constant apprehension.
The boys collected four bags full. Moreover, they undertook to
bring them toward the boat, and are bringing the last two just as
I approacli the beach. There are Eskimos on the beach with dog
teams and sledges waiting to cart off what was unloaded from the
ship. Photograph one of the teams and then on into the boat and
to the Beat' with the four bags, a box full, part of another bag, and
all pockets full of specimens. Only to learn when we reach the
boat that both Doctor Goodman and Mr. La Voy are going with
us and that the former after supper is still to go and get his things
104 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [bth. ANN. 46
from the mission. I have no boat to go back with, and so lose
several hours.
July 30. Gloomy morning, windy, cool, sea not good. Do not
feel easy. But need to pack. One of the officers, Boatswain Berg,
lends me his short sheepskin coat, and I pack up to lunch. The sea
is getting worse. Have but little lunch and soon after have to take
to bed or would again be sick. To avoid the pitching of the end
of the boat where my bed is I go to the dispensary and lie until 6.
From 6 on the sea moderates somewhat, so that I am able to have a
little supper. After that go to officers' wardroom, play two games of
checkers with the doctor, get some more specimens from two of the
officers, and retire.
When I boarded the Bear it became plain to me that I must earn
as much as iDossible the sympathetic understanding of my woi-k by
both the officers and the crew, and so I gave two talks, one to the
officers and the other to the men, telling them of our problems in
Alaska, of the meaning and value of such collections as I was making,
and of other matters that I felt would be useful on this occasion. As
a result I had throughout the voyage nothing but the friendliest feel-
ings of all and their cooperation. Sincere thanks to the officers and
the crew of the Bear, from the captain downward.
Saturday, July 31. At 4.30 a. m. suddenly a heavy bump forward,
followed by several smaller ones. Ship rises and shivers. Have
struck ice floes. Going very slowly. Further bumps at longer or
shorter intervals and occasionally the ship stops entirely. Seas
fortunately much calmer.
Up at 7. We are in a loose field of ice — aquamarine-blue ice
covered with hillocks of snow, all shapes and sizes, as after a hard
winter on the Hudson, only floes mostly larger and especially deeper.
Soon after breakfast hear walrus and seals had been observed on
the ice, and shortly before 9 the captain comes down hurriedly to tell
us they have just spiecl^ — they now ha^-e a man in the crow's nest up
on the foremast — a white bear.
Kun up — everybody pleasurably excited — to the front of the ship.
See a black-looking head of something swimming toward a large ice
floe about 500 yards in front of us. As we approach the head reaches
the floe, then a big yellowish paw comes out upon the ice, then the
shoulders, and finally the whole bear. The officei-s hurry forward,
each with a gun. Soon men all there. Some one fires. Bear stands
broadside watching us. The bullet goes way over. Then other
shots — still missing — water spouting high in many places. Bear
bewildered, does not know what to do, lopes off a little here and there,
stops again, looking at us, and now — we are less than 100 yards from
him it seems — a bullet strikes him above the loin — we can see him jerk
HRDLiCKA] WRITER'S TRIP ON YUKON 105
and the red sj^ot following. He runs clumsily, but other shots follow,
some seemingly taking effect, and then he drops, first on his belly,
then, twisting, turns over on his back. A few more movements with
his paws and head, and he lies still, quite dead. Can not but feel
sorry for the poor bear, who did not know why he was being killed,
and had no chance.
A motor boat is lowered and goes to get him. They find on the floe
the remains of a seal on which he fed. Tie a rope to him, drag him
into the water, tow him to the Bear, which has stopped and where
all stand on the bows in expectation and with all sorts of cameras,
and prepare to hoist the brute aboard. Captain says it is the second
case of this nature in 20 years. Ropes are fastened about the big
body, attached to a winch, and the big limp form is hauled up. thougli
not without some difficult}, due to its size and weight. All stand
about him, examine, photograph. They will let the natives at Wain-
wright skin it and give them the flesh. It is a middle-sized, full-
grown male. It shows only two wounds, the one in the side and one
where the bullet passed through his mouth, knocking out one of the
canines.
Cold — must put on second suit of underwear. Very gloomy, but
storm abated. No land in sight^ — above Cape Lombard all is flat.
It rains in that direction. We meander among the floes, now and
then bumping and shivering. Should a wind come up and blow the
ice landward we would be in danger of being closed in and stopped
or delayed.
Evening. Arrive off Wainwright. Village recent — older site 20
miles away. People the usual type of Eskimo. Visit the village, but
soon return.
After supper the boat stops — fear the ice. Another pa.ssenger is
added here, Jim Allen, the local trader, with a bagful of white
fox skins and a bear skin. Conditions becoming a bit crowded.
Sunday, August 1. No movement to-day. They are apprehensive
of the ice, and so we stay here, the one place of all where there is
nothing for me to do. Of course there are the natives, but with the
constant uncertainty as to when we shall start and a lack of facilities
I can not do much with them.
The weather is quiet but still cloudy, though the sun may possibly
peep out. Ice seen in the offing. Would be more interesting to be
in it, as yesterday. The bear has been skinned, cut up, and we shall
try some of its flesh at noon. Rest of day quiet but still mostly
cloudy, though occasionally a little of pale, lukewarm sun. At
3.30 give lecture to the officers and fellow passengers on the subject
of evolution. Seems quite appreciated. Reading, writing, and
walking the deck fills the time. Ate a little of the bear meat — some-
88253°— 30 8
106 ANTHROPOLOGICAL, SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth.ann.40
what tough, otherwise not much different from reindeer or even beef.
If better prepared (especially roasted on coals) would be quite
palatable.
Yesterday there were several flurries of snow, none to-day, but air
cold enough to make a long stay outside disagreeable.
Toward evening Captain announces that he is going to try to reach
Barrow, about 80 miles northeastward, and soon after supper we
start. He also tells me we may be there at or not long after mid-
night and so to be ready, for the boat will be unable to stop more
Ihan an hour or two. As the only place where a few skulls and
bones may be found is about ll^ miles outside of the village and it
takes a good 30 minutes to make a mile over the tundras, I shall
have to rush once more. But I am promised a man to help me.
August 2. With clothes on, and anticipation, slept poorly. Ship
.stopped about 1 a. m. and I imagined we were off Barrow. But on
rising find that we have gone on and tlien backward again, encoun-
tering ever more ice. It is cold and foggy outside, and cloudy and
gloomy. We now meander among the big floes, now and then bump
into one until the whole ship heaves and shivers, and occasionally
the siren, stop for a while to diminish the shock. We are now on
way back to Wainwright. If we only could go as far back as Point
Hope, where there is so much of interest. I might have stayed over,
but would surely have reproached myself for missing the remainder
of the coast.
Back off Wainwright, cold, windy, sky gloomy as usual.
Late in the afternoon go with the trader to land, to visit the site
of an older village, about a mile down the shore. Walk along the
beach. Cold wind, raincoat stiffens. Walrus meat and blubber
chunks (slabs, etc.) along the beach at several places, also a large
skinned seal. Traces, as one nears the village, of worked stones, but
all waterworn and no finished objects. At one place in bank, about
3 feet deep, a layer of clear blue ice about 20 inches thick — .strangely
pure ice, not frozen earth or even inclusion of any dirt or gravel.
Village site small, along the edge of the low (about 10 feet) bluff.
Count remains of eight dwellings. Some animal bones, but nothing
else on surface or in vicinity. Burial place not seen. Companion
says there is nothing.
A simple supper at the trader's, prepared by his Eskimo wife, and
good company: Doctor Smith, of the Geological Survey, with two of
his men; Jim Allen, the storekeeper, a big, good-hearted fellow;
La Voy. the big, active movie man. who knows all the gossip and
enjoys telling it with embellishment; and two men of the ti'ader.
Menu : Soup, boiled reindeer meat, underdone biscuits, coffee.
After supper go to a meeting at the school, where our missionary,
Doctor Goodman, is to talk to the natives. Large .schoolroom
hedliOka] WRITER-S TRIP OX YUKOX 107
crowded. I talk through an interpreter — a serious disadvantage —
on cleanliness. Fine study for me on the many present, though like
elsewhere on such occasions they are mainly women and children.
Good many Indianlike faces, though cheekbones more prominent
and more flatness between them. But hair, low foreheads, eyes (ex-
cept in children where they are more superficial, less sunken, and
with more epicanthus than in Indians), lips, and other character-
istics the same as in Indians. Some of the faces are strong, many
among the younger pleasant, some of the young women handsome.
A moderate number of mix bloods, even among the adults. Color
of skin in full bloods medium to submedium brown, exactly as in
full-blood Indians along the Yukon, but cheeks more dusky red.
The behavior of these peojDle is in all important points radically
that of the Indian, but they are more approachable and open and
matter-of-fact people. More easily civilized. Good mechanics.
Less superstitious, more easily converted to white man's religion.
And good singers. Their singing at the meeting in the schoolhouse
would have shamed a good many whites in this respect.
Except for epidemics, I am told, these natives would more than
hold their own in numbers. They are fecund, if conditions are
right. Sterility is rare. They marry fairly young.
August 3. Still standing, though we had to pull out farther
south and away from the shore. The water was pretty rough and
I had to go to bed again, but weather moderated.
We are in touch with the world through the ship's radio, but get
more trash — same all through the radio service in Alaska — than
serious news. Spend time in reading, talking; some play solitaii-e
games; captain and Allen play cribbage. Deck too small for any
outside games, even if it were not so cold.
Ice floes floating about us, now scarce, now thicker; water splashing
against them and wearing them out into pillared halls, mushrooms,
and other strange forms. Due to their snow covering, the water
upon them, so far as it results from melting, is sweet, and in it swim
many small fishes. It snowed a bit again to-day.
August 4. No change, except that the sea is somewhat calmer,
and for a while we have once more seen the sun, but it was hazy
and just mildly warm, while the same wind, from the sea, even though
now subdued, has an icy undertone. It snowed a little this morning.
Thursday, August 5. Sea calm, atmosphere hazy, but the wind
has turned at last slightly ofl.shore and the sun penetrates thi-ough
the mists, until it conquers and shines, warm and bright if not
wholly clear, once more. Ice visible only on the horizon. At 7.15
we start on another effort to reach Barrow.
Pass Wainwright, and aU is well until after lunch, when fog
(though fortunately not thick) develops and the floes increase until
108 ANTHROPOLOGICALi SUEVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ann. 46
they are as thick as at the first attempt in this same region. Heavy
bumps and strains follow one another and the boat must often go
very slow or even stop altogether. Sometimes the heavy ship just
staggers from the impact, but the floes are generally broken by the
shock and swirl away out of our way, or scraping the ship pass
to the rear. All aboard show new interest and energy. The forced
stops and inaction were dulling even to the crew.
File a wireless to be sent from Barrow. It will reach Washington
to-morrow after we shall have started on the return journey.
Two dogs on board fight fiercely. An officer, the owner of one,
trying to separate them is bitten by his own through a finger.
A marine, in swinging the heavy lead with which they are con-
stantly sounding the depth, gets the cord caught about his hand
and suffers a bad sprain witli fracture.
The captain's little black cat, Peter, helps to entertain us by his
antics. No wonder sailors in their often monotonous existence like
all sorts of mascots.
Friday, August 6. Of course our dates got mixed, and more than
one has to consult the calendar and count. The Bear had to turn
back once more last night; ice too heavj'. Anchored, however, not
far to south. This morning very cloudy, rainy, chilly, but wind
from near to east, and so from about G a. m. we are once more labori-
ously on our way. Now and then a bump, heave, stagger, then again
the screw resumes its cheerful song. We are passing through the
most dangerous part of all the coast here where many vessels have
been lost, sometimes whole small fleets of whalers. But very few
come here now — we have seen but one since leaving Kotzebue. They
call this stretch " the boat graveyard."
Saturday, August 7. Stalled, about 30 miles from Barrow. An-
chored in the protection of a great grounded flat, in a clear pond of
water, with ice all around it, but especially seaward, where the pack
seems solid. Some open water reported beyond it. but wind (wild)
keeps from the wrong quarter and the captain will mal^e no further
attempt until conditions change. Of course it is cloudy again and
has rained some during the night and morning, but the temperature
is somewhat higher, so that one does not need an overcoat and
gloves, although the officers wear their sheep-lined short coats which
are nice and warm.
After noon asked the captain for the skin whaleboat to explore
the sliore. The latter is nearly a mile distant and shows about 60
feet high dirt bluffs. Got the boat and went with the boatswain.
Berg, a young "hand," Weenie, and the movie man, La Voy.
Rowed with La Voy. Had a wholesome two and a half hours
exploi'JDg, Found a little stream, with traces of native deer camp
HKOLicKA] WEITER'S TRIP ON YUKON 109
(collected two seal skulls) ; a moderate number of flowers and grasses
(collected some mushrooms) ; some fossil shells from the bluffs; and
two Eskimo burials. One of these, a woman, nearly all washed away
and lost; of the other, a man, secured the skull, jaw, one shoulder
blade and jDart of a diseased femur with corresponding socket
(mushroom arthritis), also the two humeri. A good specimen. Re-
turned, rowing again, near 4. All there playing cribbage and
solitaire.
Am tempted to walk to Barrow ; but there are some streams in the
way which it might be impossible to ford. Moreover, no one knows
the distance.
Sunday, August 8. Morning finds us once more thwarted, and
standing at our place of refuge. No change in conditions, but there
will be a change of moon to-night, so I at least have hopes. In my
travels I learned too much about the moon not to believe in it.
Toward evening ice begins to move out.
Monday. August 9. At 12.30 a. m., unexpectedly, a new start.
The wind has turned at last (new moon!) to northeast, but is mild.
Soon in ice. Many bumps and much creaking and shaking. Cap-
tain's collie gets scared and tries to get into our beds, one after
another. But very little sleep under these conditions.
In the morning we find ourselves in a thicker ice field than any
before, with floes on all sides. Boat barely creeps. Toward 10 a. m.
further progress found almost impossible, and so forced to turn back-
ward once more. However, can not even go back and so, near 12,
anchor about a mile offshore opposite a small river with lagoonlike
mouth and two tents of natives — " Shinara," or " Shinerara."
Ask captain for a boat to visit and explore the coast. Consents,
and so at 1 we go forth, about eight of us, with the captain's dog.
Reach Eskimo, photograph the group. All look remarkably Indian-
like. Then go to look for skeletal material. Nothing near, so return
for the Eskimo boy. He leads me about a mile over the highland
tundra to two burials in boxes — not old. Look through crevices
shows in one an adolescent, in the other a female (or a boy) with
hair and skin still on. Leave both.
Then into the boat once more after buying some fossil teeth, and
with the boy Isaac — his father is Abraluim — try to go into the river,
and soon get stuck in the stickiest mud (oily shale) imaginable —
gi-eat work to clean even the oar with which we had to push ourselves
off. Land then on the beach and for the next two hours explore
that side of the basin. Find remains of two small settlements —
seven huts in all, none very old.
Gather five skulls with parts of four skeletons, most bones missing ;
also some mushrooms, several interesting humeri of seals, and a piece
110 AXTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. axn. 46
of piimicelike fossil bone. Near 4.30 begins to rain a bit so we hurry
to boat, and in a little while, after depositing Isaac near his camp,
reach the Bear.
Eskimo on shore had two skinned seal lying on the ground, and
there were many reindeer horns. A pile of them was over a fire,
being smoked.
Tlie wind has been the whole day from the northeast, the long-
wished-for wind, and the ice has moved out sufficiently to induce
the captain to make another start. So at 5 p. m. off we go again,
and for quite a while the screw sings merrily, until we reach some
remaining ice, when there are more bumps and staggers.
The waters about the ship show, whenever calmer, the heads of
swimming .seal, grown and little. But they are wary and keep at
a distance. Otherwise the only live things are an occasional gidl,
and rarely a couple of ducks. In the icy water, however, on and
alwut the floes, are seen again numerous small, dark fish (from the
size of a big minnow to that of a tomcod) ; and along the shore swim
merrily hundreds of very tame and graceful little snipes, lovely small
birds, too little, luckily, to be hunted.
Little enthusiasm about my collecting, but the boatswain and some
at least of the men are genuinely helpful. I believe some of the
others ai'e a bit superstitious. But I get some chance at least, and
that is precious.
Expect to reach Barrow before 12 p. m.. and to start back before
morning — a big chance for some sleep again if I want to do some
collecting. Sleep, through the frequent lack of it, has become a
kind of obsession in one's thoughts, yet when there were chances dur-
ing the days of waiting it would not come.
August 9, evening, to 10 next morning. This is a land of odds and
wonders. In the morning tilings looked hopeless; toward evening
the wind has driven away enough ice to make a narrow open lane
near the shore, and utilizing this we arrived without difficulty
at 8 p. m. at the long unreachable Barrow. At 9 boat takes us
ashore. At 9.30 p. m. I start with an Eskimo and a seaman (Wee-
nie) from the Bear on a collecting trip over about 3 square miles
of tundra behind Barrow, and at 12 :30 return to ship with four bags
of skulls and bones. But sleep ! Hardly any since 12.30 last night,
and very little after return to-day, foi- due to fear of ice they
called in everybody from shore before 3 a. m., and the newcomers
keep on walking and talking and banging with their baggage until
.5, when, fearing a return of the ice, we start once more southward,
toward — it feels strange, but it is so — home. It was a remarkable
good fortune, our getting there thus and getting out again, as we
did, without damage.
KRDLI.^KA] WRITER'S TRIP ON YUKON 111
Barrow is a gond-lookinp and rather important place. It stretches
about 2 miles aloufr the low shore, in three clusters, the two main
ones separated b}' a lagoon. It has a radio station, a mission
hospital, and a school. There are over 200 natives here, and also quite
a few whites, including Mr. Charles Brower, the trader, observer
and collector, with his native wife and their family, the teacher, the
missionary and his family, and the nurses.
The liurial place here is the most extensive in the Eskimo territory.
Taking the older parts and the new, it covers over a square mile of
the tundra, beginning not far beyond the site of the hospital and
extending to and beyond a small stream that flows over a mile inland.
But the burials were grouped in a few spots, the rest being barren.
This extensive burial ground is now aliout exhausted for scientific
purposes, excej^t for such skeletons and objects as may have been
assimilated — i. e. buried — by the tundra. That such exist became
quite evident during our search, and they naturally are the oldest
and most valuable. We secured two good skulls of this natui-e. They
were completely buried, only a little of the vault showing, and had
there been time we should doubtless have found also parts of the
skeletons. The skulls were discolored brown.
Of tile later skeletal material we found but the leavings, the best
having lieen carried off by other collectors. There were remnants
of hundreds of skulls and skeletons, but for the most part so dam-
aged as not to be worth saving. Nevertheless our diligent midnight
search was not in vain, and we brought back four sacks full of speci-
mens, the Eskimo carrying his with the utmost good nature. The
destruction here is due to sailors and other whites and to dogs, foxes,
and reindeer.
The reindeer herds, going in lumdreds over the ground, help
materially to scatter and damage the bones. So, the older material
gone, while the more recent burials are, at least so far as the
younger element is concerned, quite worthless to science, containing
many mix bloods of all sorts — even occasionally with the negro
(men from the wrecked whaleboats). The collection now secured
was the last one possible from this locality, except through exca-
vation.
Tuesday. August 10. The boat is now crowded. We lost one
woman and got three; also about five or six men — newspaper, movie,
radioman, a dog teamster, a trapper. Quite a variety, in every way,
nnd most are to go with us at least as far as Nome. They will have
to hang up two hammocks in our little cabin each night, and some
must sleep elsewhere.
Packing the whole morning. Five boxes. My man of last night
helloing, a fine, big young fellow. This aid in the work is a great
112 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ann.40
boon to me, and the transportation of the many specimens by the
Bear down to Seattle or San Francisco will be a fine service to the
Institution.
The older of us, that is those who have been longer on the ship,
feel like veterans and are drawn closer together. The new lot,
heterogeneous, do not attract, particularly' one of the women. An
older one, evidently a well-liked nurse, goes off at Wainwright,
which we reach once more at 8 p. m. Hei'e goes off also Jim Allen,
the trader, who is a good fellow in a rough shell and whom I
learned to like. He lielped us all a good deal while in the ice.
The movie man from Point Hope is a somewhat spoiled, gossipy,
and roughshod, but otherwise a good-hearted big kid — not verj'
wise, but not mischievous, and more than efficient in his own calling.
Is 40, but already- aging, like a weather-beaten poplar — not pine
or oak. Is violently against all " kikes," or eastern money-lending
Jews, from whom he used to borrow at usurious interest and who
sold him out once or twice when he could not paj'.
Lost Jim Allen and dropped the nurse, but are still too many.
At 10 p. m.. just as the minister and I have retired, there comes a
call for the former to go up. A couple of Eskimos have arrived,
with their friends, to be married. So he dresses and performs the
function. I am too weary to rise and dress to go and look at it.
He says it was quite tame. Then the anchor, and once more we
are off. No ice any more, and the sea has again a swell, which was
absent in the ice-covered waters.
Wednesday. August 11. Swell, but not bad, though one of the
women, another nurse, is ill, and the other, a " writer," etc., will not
get up for breakfast. Quite a problem now to get washed and
shaved. Both the minister (archdeacon) and the movie man like
to use perfumed things, and the former takes much time with his
toilet, so I endeavor as before to be first up.
August 12. A great da3^ Was called a little after 12.30 a. m., after
but little sleep (through anticipation), to examine a site ashore — -
a coal mine, a water source, and possibly something human. Two
miles to shore, in semidarkne&s ; no night yet in these regions. A
long tramp over the mossy and grassy tundra; mosquitoes. One
native igloo, and on a little elevation some distance off a grave of
a child; otherwise nothing. After examination of the coal strata,
a curious secondary inclusion in sand and gi'avel. and the stream
of water (good to drink, even if not clear), we depart and reach
shi^D again after 4 a. m.
Beginning to be — in fact am already — a " night doctor," for sure.
Never thought I could stand such doings, but am standing it, and
that even with some cold and bothersome night cough. But am
IIKDIKKA] -SVRITEK'S TRIP ON YUKON 113
sure short on sleeping, for it is impossible for me to catch up during
the days: am not a day sleejjer. I suppose when one is most of
the time half hungry his mind naturally reverts to hunger, as mine
does to sleep.
We are due to-day again at Point Hope, and I am anxious for a
little time there.
At night. This was a day of harvest. Reached Point Hope about
3 p. m., but had to go ai'ound again to the other side, due to the
swell and surf on the north. I went to shore in the first boat, about
4 p. m. Doctor Goodman, with whom we are very friendly, was
with me and promised to go over and help me get some men with
whom I want to excavate the burial hole of his predecessor. But
when on the shore stays behind and remains. So we go on with my
man from the ship to the whalebone graveyard. Near there see
two Eskimo men with some dogs. They smile ; so I tell them what
I want; in two minutes have engaged them; in about three more
we begin to dig, and in about five minutes after strike first bones.
My good friend the boatswain, Mr. Berg, comes to help, and as I
now have four to work I take a bag and go on collecting a little
more over the plains beyond where we are. Get a good bag. Find
another good-natured Eskimo, Frank, coming from fishing, engage
him to help carrying and eventually to take place of one of my first
workers, who is an old man. Then we see Doctor Goodman, far
away, coming to the mission. Borrow two more shovels from his
stock and a few coal bags. Meanwhile bone and skull pile is fairly
exposed from one side and top gravel parth' removed, so I give up
intended trip to old village site and, as we were given only to 9.30
p. m., go to work on the pile.
A great deal here. More than anticipated, though all is a jumble,
with the long and other bones of the skeleton on the top. The work
is to get down in the moist gravel, disengage one bone and skull afrer
another as rapidly as possible, give it a rapid look-over, and either
save, if fairly well preserved or showing some special feature, or
discard. If saved, the specimen is handed to one of the Eskimo,
who cleans it of gravel, lays it out to dry a little, and then places it
gently in a bag.
Many of the bones and skulls were found so damaged that they
had to be left. But much was also good. The strenuous work, how-
ever, had to go on without interruption and at the fullest possible
speed, if the main part of what Avas there was to be saved. So no
supper, no stop for even a minute, until after 8 p. m. Sixteen bags
full, and some of the sacks quite spacious. At last had to give up —
no more time, no sacks, and lower down everything frozen as hard
as flint. The main part, however, secured — 183 good skulls, several
114 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IX ALASKA [eth, axn. 40
hundred lower jaws, and a lot of long and other bones. This, to-
gether with the rest of the material from this place, ought to give
us data of much value.
But now, how shall the lot be got on the boat. Luckily, one of the
Eskimo that has been working for me has a dog team and sled. So
I engage these; and shortly after we finish putting everything in
order — in the presence now of Doctor Goodman, who comes to look at
us — the man arrives, with a good-sized sled and 13 whitish dogs.
Load all the bags on — and then a sight never to be forgotten — the
dogs pulling the load across the tundra, depressions, gravels, right
down to the water's edge and to the motor boat that is waiting for us.
How they strained, pulled with all will, and obeyed. A wise leader
in front, six pairs behind. No reins, only a few calls from the
Eskimo, and they knew just what to do. Tried to photograph them,
but light already poor — advancing season. (PI. 9, a. b.)
Then hurry to the teacher, not home ; to La Voy, not home. Find
teacher in tent, sick, trembling; I fear beginning of typhoid. Did
not get anything for me in our absence. La Voy promised to give
me some things from his collections, but now is not here. A native
woman, however, meets me far out on the beach, and I learn she has
dug out for me since our first visit five good skulls from the ground —
some, she shows, deep to above the elbow. She has them near the
ship — we go on — on the road boys and women overtake me with a
few things to sell. Then the woman brings her skulls, in a bag on
her back, in excellent condition. I pay her for her trouble. Reach
our boat, and the bell on the Bear rings 9.30.
The bone pile — the sled and dogs and load over the tundra — the
woman carrying a native (seal) bag with skulls — will be three rare,
indelible pictures.
On the Bear at 10. A little sandwich, fruit, and a cinnamon cake
with coifee, and to bed. But irritating tire-cough keeps me up for
another hour.
Friday, 13th. Packing. A nice day. Toward evening stop at
Kevalina. Obtain a few things and pictures. To bed soon, but
cough .still bothers. I have nothing for it; there is but little on the
boat in the way of medicines outside of the most ordinary things.
Saturday, 14th. Up .5.30, early breakfast, and 6.45 start once more
for Kotzebue. The Bear has anchored about 12 miles off, so do not
reach village until 8.35, and have to go back at 9.10. Rush to store,
get boxes, barrels, and packing. And then to the schoolhouse, where
I expect some information about the skeleton found under the house
and obtained on my former visit. Also promised information from
Mr. Chance, the supervisor, about old sites. But Mr. Chance is gone,
and no letter or message — it came later, to Washington. A few
HRDLicKA] WRITER'S TRIP ON YUKON 115
words with the teacher, and one of the boys from our boat is already
calling me.
Return at 11 a. m. and spend the rest of the day packing, finishing
just at supper. A curious sunset at 8, a horizontally banded sun,
several clear-cut, fairly broad, dark bands. Sea getting rougher.
Sunday, August 15. Bad sea, wind, waves, fog. Have to take to
bed and do without breakfast. Stay in until lunch. We could not
stop again at Shishmareff ; could not get ashore. The nest stop, late
afternoon, is to be at the Little Diomede, to take oS Jenness; but if
too rough we shall go on to Teller. The wind is from the northwest
and the foghorn keeps on blowing.
The whole day continues rough, foggy, unfriendly. The ship can
not stop at the Diomede, nor go to Teller; obliged to go to Nome.
After supper all chairs and movable articles have to be tied up.
Most day in bed, but escaped I'eal seasickness, and got some sleep.
Monday, 16. AVeather moderated. We are in lee of the mountain-
ous part, of Seward Peninsula. After breakfast oiF Nome, and at
11 a. m. in town. First stop at Lomen's. Then from one to another
till 4.55 p. m., when Dan Sutherlantl, the Alaska Delegate to Con-
gress, escorts me to the boat. Saw many friends, got some mail,
and. best of all, got a fine deposit collection for the National Museum
from Mr. Carl Lomen. The judge asked me for another lecture for
next Saturday, when we are to see Nome for the last time.
About 5 a. m'. arrive at Golovnin Bay to take water. At this place
this is generally a day of jjartial rest and recreation for the crew.
The water is taken from a small stream fed by a spring that comes
out from a cave of the mountain, and is put direct into the whale-
boats, brought to ship, and pumped into its tanks.
Shortly after breakfast the captain gives us the larger motor boat,
and with Mr. Berg and two of the seamen I start for a little survey
trip along the northern .shore of the bay. In less than an hour we
reach a sheltered nook with a small stream, where there is an old
frame dwelling with some outstructures, all evidently abandoned,
though various articles of use hang or lie about, including several
guns of old patterns.
On a bluff to the left of the house are six burials, some old, wood
near all rotten, some more recent. The latter, two in number, both
show a large animal skin covering of the body, besides which the
latter shows remnants of clothing. Secure two good skeletons,
practically complete; also head and a few parts of a newborn (or
near) child. A unique feature — with one of the male skeletons is
found a complete skeleton of an eagle. Could have got also a female
skeleton, but was still unclean, and we perceived a small native motor
boat coming toward us from the reindeer camp about I14 miles
116 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [bth. ann. 46
farther inward. So we replaced everything (outwardly) and started
off to meet the native boat. Found in it two young men and three
women. Inquired about old sites and learned of one about 3 miles
farther inward.
Stopjjed at the reindeer camp. Found there about a dozen in-
dividuals. Got more information, also a young man to go with us,
bought for the Bear a dozen good-sized silver salmon — caught this
morning and lying for protection against flies, in a pool of water —
and left for the old site " around the point."
A nice site, but small. Fine beach for bathing if it were in a
wai-mer climate. Remains of about a half dozen semisubterranean
houses. A coj^iaer nail from one shows they were not very ancient.
And no burials left, save one. more recent, of a child, most of which
is gone. But there is a green elevated plane rising from the beach
and we soon find several varieties of berries, especially large and good
blueberries, a variety of huckleberry, and a sort of wine-tasting
dwarf blackberry. Collect enough for immediate consumption — a
most welcome diversion in every way — and get some for the captain.
Leave near 1 p. m. A little lunch on boat, then once more the
reindeer camp, where the young women make us good hot coffee
with as good biscuits as one could find anywhere. Buy more berries
from them, load our fish (12 salmon i-anging about 12 pounds each,
for $3), and start off for another site just around Stony Point.
Eound up one point, then another and another, up to five, and by
that time the going has become so rough that we get much tossed
about, ship water, dog gets frightened and near sick, and just
as we reach what we thought must be the last point there juts out
still another. It is now so rough that the boatswain thinks we could
not land, and so nothing remains but to turn back to the mother
boat. Reach there near 3.30 p. m. Soon all boats are hoisted, and at
4 the Bear is on her way to St. Michael.
August 18. Arrived about midnight off St. Michael ; must stay out-
side due to shoal water. Somewhat rough.
In the morning boat coaling, dirty work, so all who can go ashore.
Meet Mr. Williams again; buy a few native articles in stores, visit
Mrs. Evans, the teacher-nurse, who has on an occasion successfully
amputated a native's finger. The deputy marshal takes me to his
house, gives me some dried deer meat and smoked salmon strips, and
promises to be on a lookout for specimens for us. Near noon return.
Still rough.
At night a bad blow and the ship tossing a great deal, almost as
during the .storm to St. Lawrence. Feel it considerably, but after
3 a. m. wind and water moderate. Feel effects of it, however, whole
morning. For an explorer to be ever in rough weather subject to
seasickness is a horrid affliction.
btrdliOka] WRITER'S TRIP ON YUKON 117
August 19. Off Xonif once more. Everything, city, mountains,
appear exceedingly, unnaturally clear — not a good sign. After
9 a. m. go to town. Soon at the Lomens' headquarters, and the sons,
particular!}' Carl, bring out three smaller boxes full of things from
St. Lawrence and Nunivak Islands, and give me the choice of all.
And after I am through — near two hours' fast work — Carl adds one
beautiful tusk (carved) from Nunivak Island, and then adds another,
and two big bones of a mammoth, some as gifts, some as an addition
to his loan to our institution. Excellent men.
Lunch with Rali^h and Carl; then a good walk in the open; and
then another lecture. All pleased, and two bring me sjjecimens for
our museum. Slowly back to boat and 4.45 on the Bear again. Nice
day, but getting cooler and blustery.
Captain Koss comes to port, the graphophone starts its usual jazz
songs next (ward) room, then the supper, all visitors gone, and the
Bear raises anchor to be off for the north once more.
August 19. evening. A new, hnal chapter begins with to-day.
What will it contain when over ?
August 20. Rough. Go north until in plain sight of the Diomedes
as well as Cape Wales, and then the captain decides landing wovdd
be risky, if not impossible; and so reluctantly we turn back and
proceed toward Teller. What a tantalizing experience this must
have been to poor Jenness, who is waiting for us on the Little
Diomede. a most dreary place, to be taken off'; and I, too, expected
collections at both the Diomedes and the Cape.
Saturday. August 21. Port Clarence, off Teller. This proved
a day never to be forgotten; for failure of a rigid system, for bad
weather, for strain and endurance, and nearness to almost anything.
My purpose was to utilize the Bears visit to Teller for a survey
of a Chukchee-Eskimo battle field, of which I heard repeatedly
from the Yukon onward. Sometime during the earlier half of the
last century the Chukchee from Asia are said to have made an in-
vasion of the peninsula and to have reached as far as the Salt Lake,
east of Teller, when they were met by the united Eskimo and badly
defeated. The exact spot where this happened is, however, some-
what uncertain, and it was to locate it, examine, and collect what
might be possible of the remains that were said to be still there
that I asked Captain Cochran to let me have one of the motor boats,
to which he kindly consented, uniting the trip with some topographi-
cal observations for his own purposes.
The evening before I was told by the second officer that we shall
start some time soon after midnight for that part of the old battle
field — there seemed to be two of them — at the eastern point of the
Salt Lake. As a result could not undress, and after ship stopped in
118 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [bth. axn. 46
Port Clarence, near 11 p. m., had but a little rest. The call came at
4 a. m. A little breakfast, a package of lunch, and start at 5.10.
First note. Ship about 7 miles from Teller. Water deep enough
much nearer, but we came at night. Here there are already dark
nights between about 9 p. m. and 4 a. m., and so they were cautious.
Second. The officer says he has orders not to stop at Teller, where
there is an old Indian (Dunak) from whom I expected to get exact
bearings, and where there is also a white trader, Mr. Peterson, who
Iniows the place and might possibly have accompanied us.
Third. Distances, as usual, longer than estimated. We find even-
tually that the destination is about 32 miles from Teller.
Fourth. A brisk head wind and sea retarding us.
Fifth. As we approach our spot, a shoal water, with grass, prevent-
ing us from going straight to the most likely place, and no other way
was tried. It is 11 a. m. and already I hear an intimation that we
shall not have time for anything except to make a lunch. This is
the same officer, a v'ery good man at his post but rigid and without
much interest in anything else than his own field, who after 10
miles' trip to Kotzebue gave us 25 minutes there, when it required
15 minutes alone to reach the school from the boat.
So we end by landing on the extremity of a spit there to make
lunch, and I have only the time it takes to prepare the latter. I find,
in hurry, remains of five old semisubterranean dwellings on the
northern side of the point, and about as many low mounds with
remnants about of rotten driftwood — undoubtedly old burials.
Probably the skeletons have been assimilated by the tundra vege-
tation and blown material. A single native skull, a female, without
face, is lying about. Collected.
"\^Tiile lunch is being made ready the officer and the boatswain,
Mr. Berg, each shoot a duck. Then the lunch, a hurried loading,
and departure, after some delay in setting the sail, at 1.30 p. m. I
saw nothing that looked like a battle field. Its determination and
survey must be left for some future explorer.
Sail rapidly. Wind fresh, with us, also waves. Cross Salt Lake,
and Tussoc " River." About 4.30 reach Grantly Harbor and wind
increases; also waves. We run fast, and well enough, but the
umiak (skin boat) we are pulling begins to suffer. It rides crazily
and is jerked over the seething waves. The crossbar by which it is
partly held breaks, and now the boat goes more sidewise, with water
lapping over its border and getting in. Wind now quite a gale,
breaking waves everywhere — every now and then a big one — white-
caps all over. A dim view of Teller in distance, when the skin
boat begins to fill more rapidly and sag. Must stop engine— waves
toss us like mad — one could be thrown bodily out of the boat if
HRDLICKA] WEITEE'S TRIP ON YUKON 119
not careful in bending or moving and holding. The sail comes
down and the mast is laid down, a bad piece of work. Berg and
Pete Brant (an elderly trapper with us but formerly of Coast
Guard Service at Nome, a good sailor and knowing these waters)
work very hard and well. The skin boat has to be pulled alongside
and bailed out by young Weenie, a very hard and dangerous task.
Mr. Berg's rain hat (" souwester ") blows off and is lost in the
seething waves. Later Weenie nearly loses his — snatches it out
between the boats with a narrow escape for his head. Then Weenie
climbs into the skin boat — a brave act — and finishes the bailing, but
is much " in '" after getting back. Then our big staunch motor
launch starts again at reduced speed. But the skin boat does great
antics and threatens to fill again or break; so Pete Brant holds the
rope and is jerked every now and then, until I fear that he may
any moment be jerked out into the waves and watch to catch his
legs. Fortunately he succeeds in preventing it, but there was a
slim margin.
It has drizzled or rained, besides the wind, most of the afternoon,
and there is a lot of spray to splashes from the waves. All this has
to be taken as it conies, but the water is not cold, and our boots and
oilskins give protection. Nevertheless my right knee to hip gets
thoroughly wet and chilly, and I was not alone. But there is little
time to think of such things. We see at Teller the waves breaking
high on the shore, some boats already on the beach and others being
driven there, a few people looking helplesslj^ on.
About 5.50 we round the Teller spit and come in the lee of it into
calmer water. But the visibility over the water is probably not
over a mile now. and we see no trace of the Bear. The gasoline
supply is getting rather low ; and all are more or less cold, though
dressed warmer than I and, due to their hip-high rubber boots —
mine reach only to the knee — not wet. I now shake a lot with
the cold, without being able to stop it. So we skirt the protecting
bluffs southward to where everyone thinks the Bear is, near a little
stream from which they were to take fresh water. But though we
all strain our eyes to the limit, there is no trace of the ship.
Thus reach Cape Riley and the stream, which is found dry, without
a drop of water. Get on the pebbly beach, turn skin boat over to
get the water out, and hurry to chop wood. No wood save the water
troughs, so chop these. Must have fire. I warm up a little by
running around and chopping. They pour gasoline on the wood,
make a big fire, cook a pot of coffee, and with bread and preserved
meat make a supper, though it is mainly coffee.
Near 8 and getting dark. Storm, outside of pi-otection of cliffs,
unabated. There is a second watering place, 7 or 8 miles across the
120 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 4G
bay, and our only chance to find the Bear is to rush for this. But to
do this we must go diagonally across the waves and similarly against
the wind — a bad prospect. Also, we have only just about enough
gasoline to reach the place. But there is no help.
Thus a new start, and before long we are once more in the waves.
It is now quite obscure. The waves break now and then and splash
over us. Before long the slrin boat is again sagging and in danger
of sinking. Once more pull alongside and dangerous, exhausting
bailing by Weenie.
And so on, tossed, driven aside, but thanks to the good engine
never stopping. I hold to seat not to be thrown against things or
even out : the others are becoming gruff, irritable. And then Higsby
makes out a faint light far ahead. No one certain, but in a while
it seems moving. A solitary small light somewhere far on the sliore,
probably, not the boat.
But soon another stronger light discerned, seemingly moving to
the left, and later .several — the ship in all probability.
We toss and I'eel and .stagger nearer, but motor still going strong.
For the skin boat they found at last a position in which it takes but
little water. Finally see decisively a blinking light, the mast signal.
We show our lantern a few times. Then the ship looms before us,
but there is still the risky task of getting alongside and aboard.
However, all is accomplished without real damage.
The cabin — the good and anxious captain — a little canned grape-
fruit, and bed. But head falls and rises, the events of the day re-
appear, wonder what has become of the trade schooner we saw being
driven on the beach — and so on until consciousness passes into deep
sleep. The Bear is fairly quiet, not in the brunt of the weather.
And this eventually moderates, so that a little after 4 we start again,
only to anchor once more at 6, a little below where last night we had
our supper.
Augu.st 22. Cloudy, drizzly, rough still, and wireless news of
widespread bad storms, even in the States. So we shall wait. One
more hojDe for my collections at the Cape and with Jenness.
Captain sa^'s this morning the officer misundei-stood his orders
about Teller. The trip demonstrated a numlier of things. One of
the main and most gratifying was the sterling quality of the men
with me, officer, boatswain, motorman. Weenie. Pete, in the teeth of
real danger. They were all that men should be under such conditions,
which is the best way I can express it. The trip may have been
in vain so far as its scientific object was concerned, but it brought
a number of men face to face with life's stresses and found their
mettle of the truest quality, without exception, to witness which
was worth the whole experience.
hedliCka] WRITER-S TRIP ON YUKON 121
Auirust 22-23. During the niffht have left Port Clarence and
endeavored once more to reach Wales and the Diomedes, to be again
turned away by fog and rough weather. The captain doubts if
there will be any more decent " spells." The season for this stormy
sea is too far advanced. Unable to land anywhere.
The da}' is followed by another horrid night, again off the St.
Lawrence Island. Boat tossing and heaving and rolling, waves
reaching and even splashing over the level of the high upper deck
in the back, everything tied up and cleared or fastened, a danger
in making even a few steps of being thrown against something, or
on the deck of being thrown overboard, and everything constantly
cracking, creaking, with every few minutes an impact big thudlike
or a splash of a wave, the floor heaving and twisting; and thus from
before evening until morning. Then a trace easier, but the whole
day gloomy and rough and the night again more unsettled. To-day
better, wind which began east then turned northwest, then almost
north, now stoiDjied, but a heavy swell is running, heaving us nearly
as much as yesterday. We have gone very slowly.
Have arrived off Savonga. The sky is now clear and there is
not much wind, but the swell is and keeps on such that, not-
withstanding the I'epeated calls of our siren, the Eskimo whom we
see above the beach near their boats, do not dare to launch these
and come, nor does the captain care to risk one of our own launches,
though we need fresh reindeer meat and all would like once more
to meet the nice lot of natives of this village. After a prolonged
wait and as conditions show no iminovement, nothing remains but
to leave the island.
Our next stop, if the weather permits, is to be at Nunivak Island.
This is a large island off the Alaskan coast, well below the present
delta of the Yukon and some distance above Kuskokwim Bay. The
island is one of the least explored, and the people living upon it
one of the least known. It is only during the last few years that
a trading and a reindeer post has been established on this island,
and only the second year that there is a teacher. What little is
known of the natives, a branch of the Eskimo, shows that they have
many different habits from those fai"ther north, in clothing, decora-
tion, etc. They make rather good black pottery, and from this
island come the most elaborate carvings in ivory, reminding strongly
of small totem poles. A photograph of a group of these people,
seen at the Lomen Studio at Nome, showed remarkably lu'oad and
short faces, unlike the Eskimo of the north. All of which made me
very anxious to visit the island.
To be brief such a visit, though promised to me by the captain,
could not be realized. The waters about the island are so im-
88253°— 30 9
122 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IX ALASKA Ieth. ann. 4g
jjerfectly charted that in weather that continued half rough it was
thought unwise to risij a hmding. I felt this keenly, as the various
other impossibilities of the trip. But I could never forget all the
unexpected help I received from the Revenue Cutter Service, for
which I was deeply grateful, and had to aclniowledge the justice of
the captain's position. We came so near that the land birds from
the island were ali'eady about us, but then turned toward the
Pribilofs and Unalaska. . .
Only little remains to be told. At the Pribilof Island, St. Paul,
we stopped at night, to take on four live fur seals for the Academy
of Sciences of San Francisco, and there we ran once moi'e into
stormy weather. Here are a few notes from this period :
August 27. Toward evening again a gale, southwest. At night
worse. Ship tossing rather wildly. No possibility to me of either
getting up or resting. Barely keep from being horribly ill again.
Later in night ship had to be turned back and just drift.
August 28. All day the storm continues. I could take no meals,
not even a drop of water. In bed and barely standing it. Ship
hove to at last and just drifting.
August 29. Gale keeps on just as bad, howling till 1.30 a. m.
Then it moderates somewhat and ship starts going again. Last night
we were only 60 miles from Unalaska, now a good deal farther out.
Steam, still in half a gale and big sea, until after midday, when, not
without some difficulty and danger, we reach the fine little protected
harbor of Unalaska. Feel weak, near worn out.
August 30, p. m. Rest, and all is Mell again. Secure a little row-
boat and go with old Pete Brant to near-by islands. Storm over
for the day and fair, though not entirely. Row, climb hills, pick
berries and mushrooms, watch a bearlike semiwild pig, out whole
afternoon, returning strengthened, refreshed. Only no appetite yet.
Found no traces of human occupancy, but heard of some in the
" Captain's Bay "' and at other spots.
The few Aleuts in Unalaska at this time show physiognomies
akin to the brachj^cephalic Indian, and not the Eskimo type.
August 31-September 1. A new gale, with drizzles. Luckily we
are at a dock, but I can do little. They are cleaning the boilers and
coaling. Evening of 1st have a good dinner — captain and the rest
of us from the Bear's cabin — at a friendly local trader, Louis Strauss,
and after that give lecture on "Man's Origin, etc." Introduction
by Capt. Van Buskirk, local commodore of the Revenue Cutter
Service. Lecture well received, make numerous fi'iends, get good
information. Strauss's supper was the first I could eat with some
taste and hunger. But the lecture did me good.
September 2. Coaling and overhauling of boilers finished. Gale
stopped. Ship leaves 1 p. m. Lay fairly sunny. Everyone sees us
HRDLieKA] THE YUKON TEKRITOEY 123
off. Harbor and hills look fine, though sky again clouded. Outside
quite a swell after the gales. Pass the Ilaida, practicing with her
cannon. The Algonkiri was here too, with the story of their visit to
the Punuk Islands. The fresh green steep mountains toward the
entrance of the harbor are refreshing to the eye.
Pass through Akitan. Pass picturesque, especially the outstanding
isolated rocks near the islands.
Toward evening, far to the left (east), see under the clouds a
glorious icy cone, the " Pogrovemoi," and later a lower but still great
mountain a little farther and to the right an old but not so very old
volcano. Other volcanoes there are, the captain tells me, now hidden
by the low clouds.
Have a new passenger, Mr. Charles Brower, the trader of Barrow.
Came from the Brower^ ship of his own company, a little larger and
faster than the Bear, and going also to San Francisco, but with
poorer accommodations. Brings with him a box of archeological
specimens from the Barter Island, in the north. Examine them, but
find little of special interest.
It takes us a little less than 10 days of a fairly good journey to
reach San Francisco. Dock at Oakland late in the evening. The
next morning, after breakfast, the boxes and barrels with collections
are taken on the dock — a big jjile. Then the Santa Fe officials
kindly run a flat freight car to the pile, the boxes, etc., ai'e loaded
on, the main part taken to the freight depot, the most valuable ones
to express, shipped, and shortly after what remains of the expedi-
tion is on the Santa Fe Limited for Chicago. It onlj^ needs to
be added that, notwithstanding the variety of receptacles and the
difficulties of packing, the collections reached the Institution with-
out damage to a single specimen. Thanks once more for the help
received in making all safe to the captain and officers of the Bewr, to
Mr. Berg, the best of boatswains, to the carpenter, and to all those of
the crew who assisted.
THE YUKON TERRITORY— SITES. THE INDIANS, THE
ESKIMO
The Tanana
brief historical data
The Tanana is the largest tributary of the YiJcon. It is over
600 miles in length, and in its breadth, though not in its volume, it
appears to equal, if not to exceed, the Yukon at their junction. The
first white men to see the mouth of the Tanana were the Russian
traders (about 1860), followed before long by the employees of the
124 ATSTTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN' ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 46
Hudson Bay Co. Dall says that it has long been noted on the
old maps of Russian America, under the name of the River of
the Mountain Men, while the Hudson Bay men called it the Gens-
des-Buttes River. (Alaska and Its Resources, 281-282.) Dall
mapped the junction of the river with the Yukon. The first who
descended a part of its course were two traders, Harper and Bates,
who reached the river higher up, sometime in the late seventies.
The name of Harper is preserved by having been given to the
big bend of the stream, 12 miles above its mouth. Its scientific
exploration begins only in 1885, with the passage down nearly its
entire length of Lieut. Henry T. Allen, United States Army;=* the
main work concerning the geography and geology of the river being
done m 1898 by A. H. Brooks."
POPULATION
The native population of the Tanana has always been remarkably
scarce. Dall obtained an estimate of their whole number as about 150
families.' Petrof, in 1880, thought they numbered perhaps seven
or eight hundred; * Allen in 1885 estimated them at between 550 and
600;^ Brooks, in 1898, thought there were less than 100; " and the
1910 United States Census gives the total number of the " Tenan-
kutchin,"' full bloods and mix bloods, as 415."
According to Brooks (Reconnaissance, 490-491), the Tanana na-
tives were separated into two geographic contingents, the eastern or
highland and the northwestern or lowland groups. The most east-
erly group included the Indian settlements in the vicinity of Forty-
mile and Mentasta Pass trail; the northwestern comprises to-day
those from Xenana to the mouth of the river.
The Tanana Indians were generally regarded by other natives
as warlike and dangerous, but so far as their relation with the whites
was concerned there was little justification for this notion.^- Physi-
cally they were reported by Brooks to " average rather better than
the Indians of the Yukon" (Reconnaissance, 492). There are but
a few and scanty other references to them in this connection.
■'Allen, Henry T., Military Reconnaissance In Alaska. Comp. Narr. Expl. Alas., 415-416.
440-452.
° Brooks, A. H., Reconnaissance in the Tanana and White River Basins. Twentieth
Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., Washington, 1900, pt. vii, 437^38 ; also the Geog. and Geol.
-Mas., U. S. Geol. Surv. Doc. 201, lOOfi.
' " Their numbers are supposed not to exceed 150 families." Alaska and Its Resources,
p. 108.
'Notes Alas. EthB.. 161.
» Brooks, op. cit., 493.
'» Brooks, op. cit., 493.
" Population, m, 1137.
•- See Castner, J. C, A Story of Hardship and SuEEering in Alaska : Comp. Narr. Expl.
.\laska, 686-709.
HKDLicKA] THE YUKON TEKEITORY 125
Indian Sites and Villages Along the Tanana
Upper course. — On this much larger part of the river it is possible
to report but indirectly.
A. H. Brooks, in 1898, reports thus on this subject : ^^ " Several
Indian houses are found on and near the Tanana between the Good-
paster and Salchakat and constitute a subgroup of the upper Tanana
Indians. * * * The most thickly settled part of the region is
along the sluggish portions of the lower Tanana. The largest vil-
lages are at the mouth of the Cantwell and Toclat Rivers, and each
of these consists of a number of good cabins. In the intervening
region there are a number of isolated houses and fishing stations,
which are marked on the accompanying map."
FiGL'RE 1.
151° ISO' WS"
-The Tanana Hiyer between Nenana and Tanana, with Indian villages
To which Lieutenant Castner, who explored the upper Tanana,
adds the following : " " On 750 miles of the Tanana proper and its
tributaries I saw seven small hamlets, and not to exceed 100 Indians—
men, women, and children."
From information obtained by me at Fairbanks, at the United
States marshal's office and from miners, it appears that the following
villages are better known :
Village, 150 miles east of Fairbanks.
Mansfield Lake village, 300 miles east of Fairbanks.
Tetlen, 410 miles east of Fairbanks.
East Tetlen, 7 miles southeast of Tetlen.
" Brooks, A. H.. A Reconnaissance in the White and Tanana River Basins, Alaska, in
1808 : Twentieth Ann. Kept. L'. S. Geol. Surv., 1900, pt. ^^I, p. 401.
" Castner, op. cit., p. 706.
126 ANTHEOPOLOGICAL, SURVEY IKT ALASKA [bth. ann. 46
LOWER TANANA, KENANA TO TTTKON
No old sites were learned of on this part of the river, and few, if
any, are probably preserved, due to lowness of banks and extensive
destruction (cutting of the banks) by the river.
The present Indian villages on the river are as follows:
1. Nenana (or Tortella), al)Out a mission, half a mile from the
railroad station and town of the same name, on the left bank of
the Tanana and near the mouth of the Nenana Eiver. (Fig. 1.)
2. "Old Minto," 27 miles from Nenana, right bank; but a small
number of Indians there now.
3. Village at the mouth of the Tolovana, right bank (where the
Tolovana entei's the Tanana) ; the village is on the distal (down-
stream) point. Nearly abandoned; only two families there now.
Summer (fishing) camp on the opposite point.
4. A small settlement at mouth of Baker Creek, right bank, about
4 miles upstream from Hot Springs.
5. "Crossjacket village," on left bank, about 45 miles above Ta-
nana, 40 miles below Hot Springs. Used to be called "Cosna."
Occupied, though only a few there.
6. Near 5, but on the opposite bank, a few habitations.
During the open season the Indians live scattered along the river
in fishing camps. This is especially true along the right bank down-
stream from Nenana.
The Yukon Below Tanana
briee history
The Yukon is the principal river of Alaska. It is one
of the greatest and most scenic rivers in the world. It is ap-
proximately 2,300 miles long (from the headwaters of the Lewes
River), in its middle and lower courses ranges at times with its
sloughs to several miles in breadth, and includes many hundreds of
islands of its own formation. Its scenery is still essentially primeval,
afi'ected but little by human occupation or industry. It has, in fact,
gone considerably back in these respects since the gold rush was over.
This great stream has lieeii known to the white man for less than
a century. Cook, in September of 1778, sailed near, discovering
Stuart Island and Cape Stephens of the St. Michael Island, but
missed the river.
In 1829 P. E. Chistiakof, director (1826-1830) of the Eussian-
American colonies, sent the naval officer Vasilief to explore the
coasts between the Alexander Redoubt (at the mouth of the Nush-
agak) and the Shaktol or Norton Sound, and in 1830 Vasilief ex-
jjlored the larger part of the Kuskokwini River, of which the Russians
HRDLii^KA] THE YUKON TERRITORY 127
knew already from their earlier explorers. Here they heard of an
even gfreater stream to the north.
In 1831, on the recommendation of Vasilief, Michail Dmitrievich
Tebenkof was sent to Norton Sound with tlie view of further explo-
ration and the establishing of a post in that region. Tebenkof dis-
covered that Cape Stephens was not a part of the mainland but of
an island; and he built here a fortified post which in honor of his
patron saint is called St. Michael, a name which subsequently passed
to the whole island. The post was to serve both trade and further
exploration.
From St. Michael, at the end of 1834, a small party is sent out
under the leadership of an educated " kreol " (son of a native mother
and Russian father), Andrei Glazunof, and on January 26, 183.5, they
reach the good-sized Indian village of Anvik, on the Kwikhpak, or
Yukon. ^^ From here Glazunof travels down the river to the large
village of Aninulykhtykh-pak (above Holy Cross), the last Indian
(as distinguished from Eskimo) village down the river, whence
Glazunof sends most of his party back to St. Michael and himself
proceeds to the Kuskokwim.
In 1836 the Russians effect the first settlement on the Yukon, at
Ikogmiut (Zagoskin, 6), later known as the Russian Mission.
In 1838 Malakof, over land portage, reaches Nulato and builds
there a trading post, which, during his absence the next winter, is
burned by the natives. In 1841 Dieriabin rebuilds and fortifies this
post, becomes its headman, and is there eventually (1851) killed by
the Indians.
In 1841 Lieut. Laurenti Alexief Zagoskin is delegated to explore
the " Kwikhpak," with its portages to the Kotzebue Sound, and the
Kuskokwim River; and in 1843 he navigates and maps 600 miles of
the Yukon, or from about the mouth of the Apkhun (northern) pass
to the mouth of the Novitna River, with approximately 100 miles of
each, from their mouth, of the Koyukuk and of the Ittege (or
Innoko) Rivers.
Tlie Russian post at Nulato remains until the sale of their American
dominions bj^ the Russians to the United States in 1867. From it and
from St. Michael individual Russian traders ranged over the river
1= There is some confusion about tlie exact date of Glazunof's .lourney, partly duo per-
haps to the fact that he started on Dec. 30. Wran.^-eU (St;it. and Ethnog. Nachricht., 1.38)
says th.Tt Glazunof's expedition was outfitted the same year (ISS."!) in which the St.
Michael redoubt was established. In Zeleny's abstract of Zagoskin's report (p. 212) and
liy Zagoskin himself (pp. 6, 23) the departure of the expedition is put a year later, or
1834, which is jjrobably correct. Dall's remarks (Alaska and Its Resources, 276, 338)
on the subject contain several errors, both of dates and facts. There is also considerable
confusion as to the names Kvikhpak and Yukon. The terra Kvikhpak ( Kvikh, river; pak,
large) is of Eskimo origin and was applied by these to that part of the river which they
occupied. The name Yukon, or something near this, is of Indian derivation and was
applied to those parts of the river, below Tanana at least, that were peopled by the
Khotana or Indians.
128 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [bth. ann. 46
and its lower affluents, but there was no further noteworthy scientific
exploration. In 1863, however, Lukin, who after Vasilief and Kol-
niakof helped to explore the Kuskokwini. readied to Fort Yulvon.
Meanwhile the river has been visited by both the Enj^jlish and
the Americans. In 1847 Mr. Bell, of the Hudson Bay Co., having
heard of the great stream from some of the Indians who visited the
fort on Peels River, set out in quest of it, accompanied by a native
guide, and reached it by the Rat and the Porcupine Rivers."
Between 1843 and 18G7 the river in its lower and middle reaches
is freely traversed by the Russian traders. In 1851 Nulato is reached
by Lieutenant Barnard, of H. M. S. Enterprise^ in search of Frank-
lin, only to be massacred there with some of the Russians and natives
by the ofPended Indians of the Koyukuk. In 1861 Robert Kennicott
traverses a part of the Yukon, and in 1865 he. with Capt. Charles
S. Bulkley, leads there the expedition of the Western Union Tele-
graph Co., which is accompanied by William H. Dall and Frederick
Whymper, and results in much information. Already, however, in
1863, Slrahan Jones, commander of the Peels River Fort, has de-
scended the Yukon to the mouth of the Novitna River or the upper-
most point reached by Zagoskin, thus completing its identification
as one and the same great stream. This point and the Tanana mark
the westernmost penetration by the English (the Hudson Bay Co.).
In 1865 begin American exjilorations proper. In that year, under
an agreement with the Russians, Maj. Robert Kennicott, heading a
party of the Western Union Telegi-aph exi^lorers, crosses from St.
Michael to Nulato. Kennicott dies in Nulato a year later, but the
explorations are carried on to result eventually in a series of valuable
publications, more particularly by Dall and Whymper.^'
The researches under the auspices of the Western Union Telegraph
Co., themselves backed by the Government, are followed by ex-
plorations under the direct auspices of the American Govern-
ment. Thus, in 1869 there is a reconnaissance of the river by Capt.
C. W. Raymond; in 1883, that by Lieut. Frederick Schwatka; in
1885 by Lieut. Henry T. Allen; in 1898 by Capt. W. P. Richardson;
and these are succeeded by the geological surveys of A. H. Brooks
and companions.^*
From 1878 on commenced placer and mining explorations for gold
in Alaska leading gradually to the eventual great gold rush of the
later nineties, which brought a whole flotilla of large river steamers
and other craft to the Yukon and led to a rapid growth of some of
the old and the establishment of a number of new settlements along
'" Ricbardson, J., Arctic Searching Expedition, London, 1851, ii, 206.
"For details see Ball's Alaslia and Its Resources. Boston, 1870.
"" See Compilation of Explorations in Alaska. .Senate Rept. 1023, Washington, 1900 ; and
reports on Alaska of the United States Geological Survey.
HRDLiCKA] THE YUKON TERRITORY 129
its banks. The rash passed in turn, many of the miners and others
departed, boats became idle and were beached or taken to the St.
Michael ship " bone yard," where, together with most of the build-
ings, they are now (1926) being broken up; and the Yukon has
reverted in a large measure to its former primeval, dormant, lonely
state.
Such, in brief, is the white man's history of the Yukon, with all of
which the river remains but half known, at best. It has never
been fully surveyed, which would be a vast and unending task. It
contains a large number of barely known little tributaries that are
lost in the jungle-covered flats with their many pools and lakes.
It has innumerable islands and channels, in which the traveler is
easily lost, and it cuts and builds constantly during the open season.
Its valley is squally and rai^y. The stream may one moment be
like a great, liquid, softly flowing mirror, to be in a few minutes
churned into an ugly and dangerous roughness from which every
smaller boat must seek shelter. Its shores are inhospitable, except
for the native fisherman and hunter, and torment man with swarms
of gnats and mosquitoes.
But there is no malaria ; no snakes or other poisonous things. And
when the weather is decent the water, the wooded shores, and the
fresh, clean virginal parklike islands have a greatness and charm
that compensate for mucli. Besides which there is the still more
intensive allure of original exploration. Botany, zoology, and above
all paleontology, find here still a fruitful field, while for anthro-
pology, and esijecially archeology, the land is still largely a terra
incognita.
The Yukon Natives
Upon their arrival on the Kvikpak and Yukon, the Russians found
the banks of the stream peopled in its upper and middle courses by
Indians and lower down by the Eskimo.'^ The last Indian village
downstream was Aninulykhtykh-pak, since completely gone. Its
site is identifiable with one that used to exist in front of the present
mission of Holy Cross or just above. The first Eskimo village of
some note was Paimute.
As to the Indians of the Yukon and its tributaries, there is a con-
siderable confusion of names, almost every author using his own
spelling and subdivisions. It is evident that there were two sets of
names of the various Indian contingents, namely the names, some-
times contemptuous, given to them b}' outsiders, and the names in
*® See .\uszug aus dem Taireburho dps Schiffer-gohiilfpn Andreas Glasunow. In Wrangpll.
Ferd. v., Statistische und ethnograpbische Nachrichten u. d. Russichen Besitzungen a. d.
Nordwestkiiste v. Amerika. Ed. by K. 0. v. Baor. St. Petersburg, 1839, 137-160. Zagos-
kia, A., I'eSechoduaia opis Oasti russkick vladenii v. AmerikS. 2 parts. St. Pet6rsburg.
1847-1848, pp. 1-183, 1-120, and 1-43 ; with a map.
130 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ann. 46
use among themselves, which generally meant the people of this or
that locality. The facts are that they all belonged to the Tinne or
Dene family ; ="• -'^ that there were two probably related generic names
for them, namely Kutchin (used especially on the upper Yukon) and
Khotana (used mainly along the central and lower parts of the
stream) ; and that along the Yukon itself, with its channels, there
were three main subdivisons of the people: The Kutchin (with va-
rious qualifications) on the upper parts of the river, down to Fort
Yukon ; the Yukonikhotana, from Fort Yukon to Nulato ; -^ and the
Kain (Petrof) or Kaiyuh (Dall) Khotana, or Inkaliks (of the
Russians), from Nulato to Holy Cross.
In addition there were the Tenan-kutchin Tenan-khotana or
Mountainmen of the Tanana ; and the Yunnaka-khotana (Zagoskin)
or Koyukuk-khotana (Dall). the peoplfe of the Koyukuk.
These groups were settled in a moderate number of permanent or
winter villages along the rivers, in the summer spi-eading along the
streams in camps. The population found by the first Russian ex-
plorer, Glazunof, from Anvik to Aninulykhtykh-pak, was seemingly
a rather large one. He is reported by Wrangell to have counted, at
Anvik, 240 grown males; at Magimiut, 35; and at Aninulykhtykh-
pak 300. At the last-named village in particular there were present
" many people," Glazunof estimating altogether nearly 700. These
figures, except for Magimiut, seem too large and were not even ap-
proached later ; but before the next count, that by Zagoskin, all these
settlements had been visited by smallpox; and at the big village
Glazunoff may have seen a potlatch, such as may still yearly be
witnessed at some settlements on the river.
Zagoskin in 1843 made a detailed and evidently reliable count of
all the villages that became known to him. His data in this respect,
as in others, being of fundamental value, are here given, the Eskimo,
for convenience, being included.
=<>Dall, Contr. N. A. Ethn., vol. 1, p. 17.
==■ Zagoskin : " ' * * great family of tile Ttynai nation, wbich occupies the interior
of tlic mainland of our colonies and known to us under various names — Yug-elnut, Tutna,
Golcanf' or Kilrane [according to the pronunciation of those giving the information].
Kenaici, lukaliti, Inkalich-liuatov [distant Inkaliks], and others — names given to them
by the neighboring coastal people."
— Petrof, Ivan, p. 161 : " This tribe, comprising the Yunakhotana and the Kutcha-
kutchin of UaU, inhabits the banks of the Yukon River from Fort Yukon westward to
Nulato."
HIlDLlCKAJ
THE YUKON TEERITORY
131
Native Villages on the Yukon and in the Vicinity, 1843 (Zagoskin, III,
39-41)'
Villages
Total
Adult
males ^
Inkalit-Iugelnut:
Inselnostlende
Khuingitatekhten
Ilteiileiden
Tlego
Khuligichagat
Kvygympainag-miut_
Vazhichagat
An vig
Makki
Anilukhtakpak
Total.
Inkiliks proper:
Kunkhogliuk
Ulukak
Ttutago
Kakoggo-khakat _
Khutul-khakat _ _ .
Khaltag
Khogoltlinde
Takaiak
Khuli-kakat
Total.
Yunnaka-khotana:
Notaglit
Tlialil-kakat
Toshoshgon
Tok-khakat
Nok-khakat
Kakliliakhlia-kakat.
Tsonagogliakhten. .
Tsogliachten
Khotyl-kakat
Unylgakhtkhokh
Nulato
Total -
Tlegon-khotana:
Innoko natives seen on the Yukon
Village totality
Total
All Indians counted on Yukon and Koyukuk.
' See also Petrof (Ivan). Tenth Census Rep., Wash., 1880, VIII,
is not always correct.
* This doubtless included many subadults.
5 31 per cent, or 1 in 3.2.
33
37
100
45
70
71
80
120
44
170
770
11
35
32
9
16
9
60
81
11
264
37
27
30
6
50
26
11
7
65
17
13
289
44
45
89
1,359
11
30
14
25
25
18
37
9
48
225
5
10
8
3
4
3
17
27
3
80
8
7
5
3
11
7
4
2
19
2
2
70
33
14
47
422
43
24
23
6
l32
37; but his transliteration of names
132
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN" ALASKA
[ETH. ANN. 46
Native Villages on the Yukon and in the Vicinity, 1843 (Zagoskin, III,
39-41)— Continued
Villages
ESKIMO
Kavliunag-miut
N ygyklig-miut
Kauyg-miut
Ankachag-miut
Takchag-miut
Ikuag-miut
Nukliluiag-miut
I kog-niiut
Ikaligvig-miut
Pai-miut
Total of Kvikhpag-miut
Total
11
13
45
122
40
130
60
92
45
123
681
Adult
males
3
4
11
32
12
35
17
22
14
35
185
Houses
38
Dall, referring to 1866-G7 (Contr. Am. Ethn., I, 23, 39), esti-
mated the number of the Yukon Eskimo at 1,000 and that of the
Yukon and Koyukuk Indians, from the mouth of the Tanana down-
ward, at 2,800. Only a few sites of villages are incidentally given
by Dall.
Ivan Petrof, as a special agent for Alaska of the United States
Census for 1880, reports himself the following Indian settlements
and numbers of inhabitants on the Yukon (Compil. Narrat. Expl.
Alaska, 68; gives also data on Eskimo, but his arrangement and
unidentifiable localities prevent these data from being used here) :
Aiivik station and village 94
Single house 20
Single house 12
Single house 15
TanaUh'ithaiak 52
Single house 15
Chageluk settlements 150
Khatnotoutze 115
Kaiakak 124
Kaltag 45
Nulato, station and village 163
Koyukuk settlements 150
Terentu'fs station 15
Big Mountain 100
Single house 10
Sakatfllan 25
Yukokakat 6
Melcizikakat 30
Jlentukakat 20
Soonkakat 12
Medvednaia 15
Novo-kakat 106
Kozmas 11
Nuklukaiet 27
Ramiiart village 110
Fort Yuk'iu 82
Later demograjahic records on the Yukon and its tributaries and
on the coast comprise additional data by Petrof, published as a
part of the Eleventh (1890) United States Census and arranged
by districts and linguistic groups; and the data of three subsequent
HKDrirKA] THE YUKON TERRITORY 133
United States Censuses, 1900, 1910, and 1920, which are given in dif-
l'erin<r ways, but in the main by major ethnic and territorial or
jurisdictional subdivisions.
Due to incomplete enumerations; to the use of native estimates for
actual count (as seems to have been the case with Dall'a figures, as
well as others) ; the different methods and classifications employed ;
and the inclusion of units now into one and now into another group
(as with Petrof, who includes three Indian villages below Anvik
among the Eskimo, etc.), the various counts are not comparable and
give but hazy ideas of the true conditions. Yet they are not without
value, particularly in showing the earlier population of the villages
and the relative proportion of the sexes and ages. The more help-
ful details are given in the appendix; for still others see references
in bibliography.
PRESENT CONDITIONS
To-day, judging from all the obtained evidence, which comprised
information, the witnessing of a potlatch at Tanana at which were
assembled practically all the Indians above Nulato, and a visit below
the Tanana of nearly all the villages where the Indians still live,
the total number of the Tinneh on the lower Tanana (from Fair-
banks to the moutli of the river) and on the Yukon from Tanana
to Anvik, can scarcely be estimated to reach 1,000. It is probably
well below that number. Moreover, not one-half of the adults and
much fewer among the j'oung are still full bloods. Disease, bad
liquor (Yukon), and mostly as yet imperfect accommodation to
changing conditions are steadily diminishing the numbers. Since
our visit many have died from influenza, especially at Anvik. Their
future is not hopeful. On the Tanana, however, and with the more
educated in general, conditions are better, and much good is being
done by the four missions on the two rivers (Nenana, Tanana, Anvik,
and Holy Cross).
The old Indian settlements along the Yukon are gone, with a few
exceptions. On some of the sites, as at Tanana, Nulato, Kaltag, etc.,
there are new villages bearing the old names but built by or in imita-
tion of whites and sheltering a mixed population. The very names
of not a few of the older Indian sites have gone into oblivion; or
the natives call those they still know by a corruption of a white man's
name, such as " Ulstissen " (for Old Station). Anvik alone has kept
its original site and some of its old character, the mission and the
white trader being across the river.
In the Eskimo part of the Yukon, below Holy Cross, conditions on
the wliole appear to be somewhat better. There has also been a
diminution in. population. The majority of the old villages have
ceased to exist, while under the influence of whites some new settle-
134 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IX ALASKA [eth. axn. 46
ments or names have appeared. Yet there are respectable remnants
of the Eskimo, and, being better workers than the Indian and seem-
ingly more colierent, they manage to sustain themselves somewhat
better than he does. Their greate.st handicap is disease. The bene-
ficial effect among them of the old Russian Mission has declined, but
(here are a number of Government schools which have a good in-
fluence. They are more tractable, sensible, and in some I'espects
perhajDs more able than the Indians.
But there exists to-day no clear-cut demarcation, geographical,
cultural, or even physical, between the two people. Anvik, the last
Indian village downstream, is in every respect at least as much
Eskimo as Indian; more or less Eskimolike physiognomies are seen
again and again among the Indians ; and Indianlike features are com-
mon among the Eskimo. There has either been an old and consider-
able admixture on both sides, or there are some fundamental similari-
ties of the two groups; perhaps both.
Archeolooy of the Yukon
Up to 1926 no archeological work had been done along the Yukon
or its tributaries, and barring a few isolated specimens there were no
archeological collections from these regions.
The archeology of the river consists, (1) of the dead but formerly
known villages; (2) of older sites, " dead " and unloiown before even
the Russians arrived ; and (3) of random stone objects worked by
man that now and then are washed out from the river banks or are
found in working the ground. Except in details conditions are much
alike along the whole river and will best be dealt with as a whole.
THE RANDOM SPECIMENS
Wherever the beach of the river shows more or less of stones
that are not talus or just pebbles, there are generally found stones
worked by man. Such localities are scarce. The first exists between
Tanana (the village) and the mission above it. Here specimens are
found occasionally on the beach and occasionally in the soil of the
local gardens. Other such sites were located at Bonasila, below
Anvik, and in four places between Paimute and the Russian Mission.
A few are also present from Marshall seaward.
An examination of the terrain adjacent to such parts of the beach
shows mostly, but not always, traces of an old settlement.
The specimens consist of characteristic axes or adzes, stone scrap-
ers, hammers, stone knives (along the Eskimo part of the river),
tomahawk heads (probably), objects less well defined, and chips.
There may be semifossilized animal bones, and rarely a bit of char-
HEDLicKA]' THE YUKON TERRITORY 135
coal, a piece of pottery (for details see Narrative), or an object of
ivory.
The ax proper is peculiar. It is a cupid's-bow ax, double-edged,
and with one or two grooves across its middle. (PI. 10.) It is as
a rule made of heavy basaltic stone, and its edges are sharpened by
polishing. Rough parts may have been polished also on the body.
Its distal surface is convex (from sharp edge to sharp edge), its
proximal surface straight or mildly convex. I succeeded in getting
a specimen remounted recently by one of the Indians near Tanana.
This form of an ax is still remembered by the old Indians when in
use. They cut trees with it, cutting sidewise and detaching the wood
in splinters. They also remember clubs with stone heads, and told
me they were carried on the back over the right shoulder so as
to be ready for instant and effective use.
These axes have apparently been used by both the Indians and the
Eskimo, but there is an interesting difference. The several specimens
I obtained or saw from Tanana to Ruby were all complete. But
from about the vicinity of Ruby downstream the bi-edged ax seems
to disappear, or, rather, one-half of it disappears, the butt hence-
forth either being left unfinished or one-half of the double ax being
broken oft' and the remainder being mounted now as an adze on a
shorter handle. This form, and it exclusively, with various sec-
ondary modifications, is found over a wide area among the Eskimo
and may reach into Asia, for I obtained a specimen of it from one
of the Diomede Islands. It connects directly with the Bering Sea
Eskimo ivory adze and chisel. On the other hand the bi-edged ax
appears, in various modifications, to extend widely over Indian
Alaska.
The remaining stone implements need but little mention here.
They will be studied and reported separately by our archeologist.
A special note will, however, be necessary later about the very primi-
tive stone industry of Bonasila, below Anvik. (See p. 144.)
Of pottery I have seen no example above Anvik, but this can
not be taken as evidence of its absence above that point. At Anvik,
Bonasila, and farther down the pottery is like that of the western
Eskimo. It is coarse ware, hand shaped, and of rather poor quality.
It consists of small round bowls to fairly large, more or less conical,
jars. It is never painted but is frequently decorated with thumb
marks and especially with grooves running parallel with the border.
Ivory implements were encountered first at Bonasila and consisted
of a few fine long points barbed on one side, looking like those of
the Eskimo and probably of Eskimo origin. There were also a few
tools of bone, generally scrapers.
136 ANTHEOPOLOGICAl, SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ann. 46
Russian beads, especially those of the large blue variety, are oc-
casionally encountered, usually singly or in small numbers, especially
in some spots.
A unique archeological specimen from the lower middle portion
of the Yukon Valley is the large stone dish obtained by Mr. Miiller,
the trader at Kaltag. (See p. 34.)
Besides these random specimens, other cultural objects are found
along the Yukon in connection with old burials. These consist of
an occasional wooden dish, sharpening or polishing stones, rarely a
figurine (doll?) in ivoi-y, Russian snuffboxes, fire sticks, dishes of
birch bark, etc. The cuUings in this field are quite poor, but there
has been no excavation of older burials that have been assimilated by
the tundra and lie now in the earth beneath.
The archeology of the old habitation sites, on the other hand,
particularly perhaps on the Shageluk and between Holy Cross and
Marshall, is decidedly promising and invites careful excavation.
Location of Villages and Sites ox the Yukon
Especial attention was given to the location of the numerous dead
villages and older sites along the Yukon. This task was found, in
most instances, fairly easy with villages that " died " since the
Russo-American occupation, for mostly they still show plain traces
and are generally remembered by the old Indians or even old white
settlers. Their precise allocation on a map, however, is not always
easy or certain. As to the prehistoric sites the search is much more
difficult and depends largely on chance discoveries.
The villages still existing give only a partial clue, in many cases,
to the old, even where these bore the same name, for on occasions a
village changed its location, though remaining in the same general
vicinity and retaining the same name. Thus there existed at differ-
ent times apparently, between the earliest contacts with whites and
the present, at least 2 Nuklukhayets, 2 Lowdens, 3 Nulatos, 3 Kaltags,
2 Anviks, etc. ; besides which there were differences in recording the
names and changes due to efforts at translation of the native term,
or an application by the whites of a new name, often that of a trader
or settler, to an old site.
In places even late village sites, in others burials, were witnessed
being undermined by the river or the sea. Such sites with their con-
tents will probably sooner or later be completely lost from this
cause. Many doubtless have thus been lost previously.
The villages and sites located along the Yukon are here enumer-
ated and as far as possible charted. Information about them was
obtained from the older Indians or river Eskimo and from such
whites as had direct knowledge in that line. Most of these sites were
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 9
u, My •spoils," loaded uii slud, Poiut ilope. (A, ij., ia2S)
'', The load is heavy and sledding over sand and gravel difficult. (A. II., 1920)
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 10
Characteristic stone axes Middle Yukon
(A. IL colL, l'J2(i.j
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 1 1
Crude stone Artifacts. Four-JO at Bonasila. Lower Middle Yukon
(A. H. coll., 1926.)
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 12
Crude stone artifacts, found at Bonasila, Lower Middle Yukon
(A. H. toll., 11.128.)
hbdliCka]
THE YUKON TEEEITORY
137
examined personally, but in some instances this was impossible. The
details concerning those seen will be found in the Narrative,- but a
few generalizations may here be useful.
I5'^° 153°
Figure 2. — The Yukon from Tanana to below Kokrines
The dead village sites are much alike along the whole river.
They are generally located at the mouth of some inland stream that
carries clear fresh water, particularly if on the other side there is
the protection of a hill. The dwellings were invariably on a flat
and were throughout semisubterranean and of the same general
Figure 3. — The Yukon from below Kt)krines to bf'low Koyukuk
type; which applies also to the larger communal houses or
" cashims."' The sites can often be told from afar in summer by
the rich gi-ass that covers them.
882.53°
-1(1
138
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA
[HTH. ANN. 40
The burials were as a rule not far from a village and preferably
on the slopes of the nearest hill. They veere mostly above ground,
but under the influence of Russians there were also shallow-ground
Figure 4. — The Yukon from below Koyukuk to Lofkas
burials. The latter can readily be told by the sawed planks of
the coffins and the iron nails by which they are fastened. In
many places no surface burials remain or there are mere traces. In
HEDLICKAJ
THE YUKON TERRITORY
139
such places little mounds may betray old burials assimilated by the
tundra. Trenching in likely spots would doubtless reveal others of
which no trace remains on the surface.
FiGCKE 5. — Old map of the Nulato district
No excavations of any of these sites have ever been attempted,
but many of the surface burials were disturbed or destroyed by
seekers of relics and the curious vandal, who is present on the
Yukon as in other parts of the country.
Figure 6. — Map of Kaltag and vicinity. (By McLeod)
The majDs shown here were made imder my direction on the basis
of maps and charts provided by the Geological and Geodetic Sur-
veys, in Washington. Additional old sites will doubtless be located
in the future and may be added to these records.
140
anthropological survey in alaska
Pre-Russian Sites
[ETH. ANN. 46
As already told in the Narrative, a search for truly ancient sites
along the Yukon has proven largely negative. A more intense and
prolonged archeological survey, with exploratory trenches wherever
there is promise, may one day prove more fruitful. But, as pointed
Figure 7. — The Yukon from Bysti'aia to below Holy Cross
out before, much can never be expected. Man could at no time
have occupied the Yukon Valley and watershed in large numbers.
He would not have found enough sustenance. Even with fair re-
sources he would hardly have tarried in these inclement regions as
long as the ways toward the south were open. He never built here
of lasting materials and had little chance to develop or even keep up
IIKDI.ICKA]
THE YUKON TEKEITOEY
141
160°
Figure S. — The Yukon from above Iloly Cross to below Mountain Village
162° 161''
FiGDEE 9. — The Yukon from below Mountain Village to near Marshall
142
ANTHBOPOLOGICAL, SURVEY IN ALASKA
[BTH. ANN. 46
any higher culture, and since he is gone the ever-cutting river has
taken away whatever it could reach and scattered it through its
silts and gravels. There is nevertheless a number of small elevated
plateaus along the right bank that ought to be sounded by explora-
tory jjits or trenches, particularly perhaps where there are traces of
later habitations.
There are. of course, some sites that are older than others. The
most interesting of these was found at Bonasila, beneath the old
site of Makki or Magimute, 18 miles downstream from Anvik. (See
Narrative.) The main facts concerning this site are as follows:
At the above distance from Anvik, on tlie right bank of the river
and following a wooded hill, is a low flat backed by rising ground
163°
Figure 10. — The Yukon from near Marshall to bcluw Kavlingnak
and cut across by a little .stream. The flat is narrow, at present about
300 feet; and the part above the stream is deeply pitted by the re-
mains of semisubterranean houses of a " dead " native village, which
I believe is identifiable with the Magimute of the Russians. On the
slope behind the village were still about a score of old surface burials,
with an article here and there of Russian derivation.
The bank of the flat rises at present only about 4 feet above the
beach of the river, but the flat behind is higher. The bank itself
contains many specimens sliowing human workmanship, consisting
of objects of stone, birch bark, bone, and rarely also of ivory, besides
many fragments of pottery, many bones of wild Alaskan animals,
and here and there a human skeleton. Some of these objects are low
down in the bank. All the bones from the bank, including the
human, and even the rare points of ivory, are semifossilized ; the
brdlicka]
THE YUKOlsr TEERITORY
143
20' 16V +0
FiGiRB 11. — From above Kobolunuk to mouth of river
144 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ann. 4ii
stone industry is peculiar; and the human remains differ plainly from
both those of the later Yukon Indian and from those of the Eskimo.
They are apparently Indian (see section on physical characteristics),
but a tall Indian of a type that now is only met with much farther
south.
The stone industry from the bank appeared at first sight so
primitive that even the term " paleolithic " would not fit and the
only term that seemed to meet the situation was " protolithic." It
consists predominantly of scrapers and knockers, with here and there
a tool sharjjened for cutting. The scrapers look especially crude.
They consist simply of pieces of smaller or larger andesite-like vol-
canic slabs broken to the desired size and chipped more or less
roughly along what was to be the scraping edge. A closer exami-
nation of the stones, which were obtained from a base of a cliff
farther down the river, showed, however, that they were of material
which is hard to work, and that the chipping, under the circum-
stances, was not really bad. (Pis. 11, 12.) Pottery must have been
fairly plentiful and quite up to the average of the river, both in make
and decoration.
Two fine long, partly fossilized ivory points picked up formerly
on the site were obtained from Mr. Lawrence. They are handsomely
barbed on one side and show a high grade of skill. They must have
come from the Bering Sea and may belong to the old fine ivory
culture of the western part of that region, of which more later.
There are also some fairly ancient sites farther down the river
(see Narrative), but just what they are and how old remains to be
determined.
A report on the archeological remains from the bank of Bonasila
by Mr. H. W. Krieger, one of the curators of the Department of
Anthropology, United States National Museum, follows:
ARCHEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ALASKA
Ancient Stone Cultuee
"Until the results of Doctor Hrdlicka's Alaskan reconnaissance
were first made known to science it had been generally assumed that
Alaskan and Canadian subboreal regions were archeologically bar-
ren. It had been currently accepted that only as one approached
the great river valleys of the Skeena, the Eraser, and the Columbia
could anthropological exploration be conducted to advantage. One
might expect to uncover cemeteries and ancient village sites only
tliere where a dense and sedentary population had long been estab-
lished. Through the discovery of ancient village sites and centers
HEDLiCKA] ARCHEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ALASKA 145
of poi^iilation in the lower and middle Yukon Eiver Valley, Doctor
Hrdlirka has extended the northern archeological horizon into the
sub- Arc tic.
" Of the many sites examined, the old village site at Bonasila, 18
miles helow the confluence of the Anvik and Yukon Rivers, yielded
the most interesting data. Crudely flaked implements of trap rock
■with cutting edges showing evidence of chipping and grinding were
uncovered. These implements are unique among Alaskan artifacts
and have no relationship with Imown types of Eskimo or Indian
stonework. In the shaping technic employed by their aboriginal
makers; in form, and in type; and, generally, in tlieir undeveloped
character, the stone artifacts from Bonasila and other ancient arche-
ological sites on the middle Yukon may be classified as primitive
neolithic.
'■ The stone implements uncovered at Bonasila are so crudely fash-
ioned and are apparently of such an improvised nature as to sug-
gest an extreme conservatism in culture development, or perhaps a
degeneration, due largely to lack of better materials. Due to the
lack of basalt, jadeite, or other hard stone in the valley of the lower
middle Yukon, recourse was had to sandstone and trap rock by the
jDrimitive makers of stone axes and celts.
" Crude pottery vessels and potsherds were discovered associated
with the objects of stone. This ware incorporates elementary dec-
orative designs distinct from the known historic Eskimo or Indian
types of pottery decoration. There can be no intimation that this
ware is archaic or that it belongs to any archaic culture offshoot
from farther south. It therefore becomes a question of some un-
known earlier Asiatic culture connection that manifested itself in
crude forms of flaked and ground stone implements and in miique
pottery forms. It is uncertain that the ancient fossil ivory culture
of northwest Alaska, of which Doctor Hrdlicka has brought in some
excellent examples, is in any manner associated with the primitive
neolithic stone and potterj^ forms uncovered at Bonasila. It is
established, however, beyond a doubt that both cultures and types of
artifacts are Asiatic in origin and have little or no connection with
the culture of the western Eskimo.
"The Eskimos of the lower Yukon Valley made extensive use of
slate and of jadeite in the production of their polished knives and
celts. Slate knives and polished celts of jadeite are characteristic of
Eskimoan culture throughout the whole of its extent in Alaska.
Each of these materials as well as the finished products shaped from
them were subjects of native barter. Eskimos often undertook long
journeys for their procui-ement. It is therefore noteworthy that no
146 ANTHEOPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ANN. 46
single object fashioned from slate or jadeite and but few points of
fossilized ivory were recovered at any of the sites characterized by
the primitive stone culture and pottery of the Bonasila type.
" The most characteristic finds at Bonasila are the crudely flaked
implements of stone, some of wliich show incipient chipping and
grinding. The coarse type of pottery is unlike that of the modern
Eskimo in temj)ering, firing, and decorative design.
" The stone culture of the site, although rich in forms, is deficient
in technical development and is scarcely worthy of being classed as
neolithic. There were found in numbers the following types of
artifacts: Circular, discoidal stone pebbles with rim fractures due
to use; river wash pebbles of irregular form used as improvised
scrapers and hammerstones ; basaltic, discoidal hammerstones with
abraded edges and pitted at the center; large flake saws of trachyte
(trap rock) triangular in section but provided with sharply
fractured cutting edges; slender flaked fragments of trap rock
tapered to the form of wedges with intentionally worked end .sections
and cutting edges; crudely flaked stone knives with evidence of
secondary chipping at cutting edges; other knives of thin slabs of
trap rock with flaked and bilaterally ground beveled cutting edges;
oblong axes of flaked sandstone with hafting notches struck off at
the edges midway from the base; abrading tools of sandstone; celts
of sandstone with ground and beveled working edge and notched
for hafting as an ax; stone scrapers with ground and beveled cut-
ting edges; fragmentary perforators of stone; rechipped, flaked
knives sha}>ed by grinding; roughly worked, multiple-grooved
hammers or mauls ; and many stone objects unformed and unworked
but classified generally as hammerstones.
THE POTTERY
"About a hundred pottery shards and smaller pottery vessels were
recovered from the site at Bonasila. Pottei-y vessels representative
of the Bonasila culture were shaped out of the solid and show no
trace of coiling. In this respect they conform to the generalized
north Asiatic and Eskimo ware. There is, however, no check stamp
decorative design that is applied with a paddle by the Eskimo nor
evidence that pottery vessels had been built up about a basketry base.
The paste is light buif or gray in color, the buff ware being better
fired and of the same color on the inside, while the gray ware is either
gray or black on the inner surface. A well-defined unfired area covers
one-half o'f the sectional diameter. Both buff and gray wares show
evidence of better firing than in modern Eskimo pottery. Tempering
hrdliCka] archeology OF CENTRAL ALASKA 147
is of coarse fragments of steatite, which is much more durable than
tempering materials such as blood, feathers, and ashes formerly em-
ployed by the primitive Eslrimo potter.
" The pottery from Bonasila is utilitarian and consists of shallow
spherical lamj^s, globose bowls, and cooking pots without feet or
bases. The ware is coarse, side walls and bottom varying from 1 to
2 ccnitmeters in sectional thickness. This type of i^ottery is prac-
tically duplicated in shards recovered by Doctor Hrdlicka from what
is now Eskimo territory in the Yukon Valley near the Russian Mis-
sion. It is probable that further search would bring to light an ex-
tensive region yielding this type of ancient pottery of distinctive
design and unrelated either to Tinne or Esldmo ware.
"Decorative attempts consist of bold incised parallel transverse
lines on the upper sector of the outer surface of the vessel. Deep
corrugations ajspear on the inside of the rim flare. Both corrugations
and incised line decorations were made with a paddle or wood
splinter shaped for the purpose. Some of the shai-ds have deeply
incised pimctations irregularly encircling the outer surface of the
vessel just below the rim extension.
" Shallow spherical pottery lamps accompanied surface burials at
Bonasila. These lamps have a less durable tempering material than
the other pottery fragments recovered. The paste is porous and is
poorly fired. Decorative designs incised on the interior surface of
the lamps are reminiscent of typical Eskimo punctate designs as
traced on the inner cii'cumference of rectilinear or curvilinear etch-
ings on ivory and bone. It is very probable that these pottery lamps
are of a later date and are of Eskimoan handicraft.
THE ALASKAN GROOVED STONE AX
[PI. 10]
" The grooved stone ax is a typical New World implement. Its dis-
tribution is limited to tribes of the eastern maize area, the Pueblo
tribes of the Southwest, the Athapascans, and the northern woodlands
tribes. Elsewhere in America grooved stone implements of any de-
scription are rare, although not unknown. The groove for the at-
tachment of cord or sinew binding is common also to the stone adze,
which is characteristic of Indian tribes of the Pacific Northwest and
of the Eskimo of Arctic America. The distribution of the stone adze
is more intensive but is much less extensive than is that of the grooved
stone ax and appears to be an environmental form borrowed from
the Arctic tribes by the Indian of southeast Alaska and of British
Columbia.
148 ANTHEOPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth, ann. 48
" The double-bitted, multiple-grooved stone ax has two areas of dis-
tribution in North America. One of these is the country of the
northeastern woodlands Indians, extending as far south as the Central
Atlantic States. The other area of distribution is the extreme north-
west, or the mainland of Alaska.
" In the collection brought to the National Museum from Alaska by
Doctor Hrdlicka are eight grooved stone implements. All but one
of these have cutting edges for use as axes or adzes. The exception,
Cat. No. 332809, U.S.N.M., is a grooved spherical stone maul or
club 9.5 centimeters (3.7 inches) long and 7.5 centimeters (2.9
inches) in sectional diameter. This grooved object was found near
Tanana on the beach of the Yukon River. Like the grooved stone
axes in Doctor Hrdlicka's collection, the groove is incomplete. A
flattened space of approximately 2 centimeters is left ungrooved for
the hafting of a flat surfaced handle end with binding, which is
passed around the transverse groove and then through a hole in the
wooden handle.
" Three single-grooved, double-bitted stone axes were collected from
various points on the Yukon River. These are of interest because
of their similar grooving and double cutting edges. Each is identical
in form, each has been shaped by pecking, except in the sector near
the cutting edges where they have been sharpened and polished by
grinding. Between the raised borders of the centrally pecked groove
and the cutting edges the surface has been shaped to a slight con-
cavity by pecking. In Cat. No. 332805, U.S.N.M., this concavity
is replaced by a well-defined convex bevel. The pecked groove is
at right angles to the longitudinal axis and is comparatively shallow
but has a wide diameter of 2 centimeters or more. The material is
uniformly of basalt. The axes are 20 centimeters or more long, while
the sectional diameter varies from 6 to 10 centimeters according to
whether the ax is flattened or oval in section.
" Grooved, double-bitted stone axes similar to those collected by
Doctor Hrdlicka from the Middle Yukon region have since become
known also from stations farther south in Alaska. One was plowed
up in a field near Matanuska and is now in the chamber of commerce
exhibit at Anchorage, while another was collected in 1927 by the writ-
er from near Chitna, Alaska. This Alaskan type of grooved ax is
practically identical with that of the central Atlantic seaboard
States, as figured by Walter Hough in tlie Proceedings of the United
States National Museum, volume 60. article 9, page 14.
"Another grooved type of stone object brought to the National
Museum by Doctor Hrdlicka is a stone war club of unusual type.
It was found on the Yukon River beach li^ miles below the Mis-
HRDLidKA] ARCHEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ALASKA 149
sion at Tanana. It is 20 centimeters (7.9 inches) lon^ and is slender,
the maximum sectional diameter being but 3.5 centimeters (1.4
inches). Like the single-grooved axes, it was shaped by pecking,
but much of the surface was also gi-ound. The reverse or hafting
surface is flat; the obverse is convexly tapered to sharjs cutting
edges which are at right angles to the haft. The material is basalt.
The hafting grooves, two in number, are comparatively deep and
closely spaced. As to form this stone weapon is unique, appearing,
so far as is known to the writer, nowhere else on the American
Continent. It has been entered on the records of the National
Museum as Cat. No. 332807, U.S.N.M.
" One form of the double-bitted, multiple-grooved stone axes re-
sembles closely ivory forms made from walrus tusks in the Bering Sea
region. This form also gives evidence of secondary modification,
specimens having been broken intentionally to reduce the tool to a
simple adze. The material is basalt and its range in the north is
limited to the Eskimo area, but becomes widespread to the south in
southeastern Alaska and in British Columbia. The form of this
widely diffused stone adze is approximated in a series of broken
stone axes collected by Doctor Hrdlicka. Two such broken and
originally double-bitted axes. Cat. Nos. 332806 and 332810, U.S.N.M.,
were collected from the banks of the Yukon at an old village site
below Anvik. These axes are broken with a crude irregular fracture
just above the upper transverse gi'oove. Another stone ax, Cat.
No. 332812, U.S.N.M., is from Ruby, Alaska, and is practically iden-
tical with the double-bitted but single-grooved stone ax from Tanana.
" It would appear from this brief presentation that there is a re-
markable similarity of form, approaching identity, in the ancient
stone axes from the river valleys of central Alaska. Whether the
particular ax has one cutting edge or is double-bitted ; whether it is
provided with one of with two parallel transverse hafting grooves,
the general identity of form remains. The striking thing about the
presence of the double-bitted ax among archeological finds from cen-
tral Alaska is tliat we do not find it represented in such numbers
anywhere until it again reappears in the Atlantic seaboard States.
The very interesting cultural objects discovered by Doctor Hrdlicka
and supplemented by my collection in 1927 show that Alaska is far
from sterile or fully known areheologically and make further explo-
ration both jJromising and important."
150 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [bth. ANN. 46
ANTHROPOLOGY OF THE YUKON
Notes on the physique of the Yukon natives are found in the reports
of all the explorers of the river, but they are imperfect and of little
scientific value; the principal ones are given below.^^ Anthropo-
metric observations on the living people of the middle and lower
Yukon, with its tributaries, are nonexistent.'* As to crania, there
are a few measurements on two " Yukon Indian " skulls (No. 7530,
and probably No. 7531), and on three crania of the Yukon Eskimo,
by Jeffries Wyman (Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 1868, XI, 452) ; on
one " Ingaleet " and three " Mahlemut " or Norton Soimd Eskimo
skulls by George A. Otis (List of Specimens, etc., 35) ; and on four
skulls collected by Dall, one from Nulato and the i-est presumably
from St. Michael, by Hrdlicka (Catal. of Crania, p. 30, Nos. 242925,
242899, 242901, 242936).
The Living Indian
Notes on the living Indians of the Yukon have already been given
in the Narrative. They will be briefly summarized in this place.
Measui'em^nts of the living were impracticable during the journey.
Pure bloods. — The Yukon Indians are a sparse and largely mixed
=^ Glazunof (Wrangcll, .Stat, und Ethnog. Nacbr., 146-147) : "The men are big,
brunette, with bristly black hair."
Zagoskin (pt. ii, 61-62) : " Tbe Tinneb belong in general to tbe American family of
redskins, but marked external differences are perceptible in those who are mixed with the
Kskimo. The Tinneh are of medium stature, rather dry but well shaped, with oblong
face, forehead medium, upright, frequently hairy, nose broad and straight, hooked, eyes
black and dark brown, rather large « • • expression intelligent, in those of more
distant tribes somber, roving ; lips full, compressed ; teeth white, straight ; hair straight,
black to dark brown, fairly soft ; many of the men hairy over the body and with fairly
thick, short mustache and beard; hands and feet medium, calves small; in general lively,
communicative, cheerful, and very fond of pleasure and song."
I^all, William FI., Alaska and Its Resources, 53-54 : " The Ingaliks are, as a rule, tall,
well made, but slender. They have very long, squarely oval faces, high, prominent cheek
bones, large ears, small mouths, noses, and eyes, and an unusually large lower jaw. The
nose is well formed and aquiline, but small in proportion to the rest of the face. The
hair is long, coarse, and black, and generally parted in the middle. * * * Their com-
plexion is an ashy brown, perhaps from dirt in many cases, and they seldom have much
color. On the other hand, the Koyukuns, with the same high cheek bones and piercing
eyes, have much shorter faces, more roundly oval, of a pale olive hue, and frequently
arched eyebrows and a fine color. They are tbe most attractive in appearance of the
Indians in this part of the territory, as they are the most untamable. The women espe-
cially are more attractive than those among the Ingaliks. whose square faces and ashy
complexion render the latter very plain, not to say repulsive." (Some of these statements
were evidently somewhat in error. — A. H.)
Schwatka, F. (Milit. Eeconn. (1883), Comp. Narr. Explor. Alas., 350) : "As regards
these Ingaliks as a class, they are, as a rule, of average beisht. tolerably well built, but
slender, differing in this respect from the natives farther down the river. They have
long black hair and a complexion brown by nature, but often verging toward black on
account of a liberal covering of dirt."
See also Richard.son, J. (.\rctie Search. Exp., I, .379). Jones. S., The Kutcbin Tribes
(Smiths. Rept. for 1866, 320-327). Whymper, F., Travel and Advent., etc.; and later
writers (including Bancroft's "Native Races," etc., I, 127 et seq.).
'-•Ten (8 m. 2 f, ) Loucbeux, or Kucha-Kuchin, from the upper Yukon, were measured
by A. J. Stone and reported by F. Boas (Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., New York, vol. xiv,
pp. 53-68, 1901).
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 13
Tanana Indian Woman
H
a:
o
a.
1
^^^^^^B^^^^^^^^^98I^^^^^\.^^^^^^^B
^
^^^^fcL_r^
-5
■^F^^^P'^ V'J '•^.
-j
-^ --^^^^^Mj^^jgys^^^^^^^^^^pB
.:<ial
l^^^l
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 15
Q, Jacob and Andrew. Yukon Indians at Kokrines. Jacob probably has a trace of white blood.
(A. H., 1926.)
b, Viikuii InUiLLDi at Kukiuit'i. tA. H., 1926.)
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 18
a, Indian c-liildren, Mission Schiml at Anvik, Lower Alid-ilo Vukou
b, Indian cliiMren. Mission School at Anvik. Lower Middle Yukon
'■^.'."•'.V>'V.','; •••'i
c, Two women of Anvik, on the Yukon, somewhat Eskimoid
HRDLicKA] ANTHROPOLOGY OF THE YUKON 151
population. The mixture is especially evident in the children and
the younger generation. It is mainly that with whites, but in the
lower settlements there is also a good deal of older mixture with the
Eskimo. There is fortunately as yet no Negro admixture.
General, type. — The full bloods are typically Indian, though not
of the pronounced plains type. The type is fairly uniform, but there
is not seldom, even up the river, as elsewhere in Alaska, a suggestion
of something Eskimoid in the physiognomy.
Color. — The color in general is near medium brown, ranging to
lighter rather than darker. The hair is the usual full black of the
Indian.
Stature amd strength. — The stature and build are generally near
medium, rather slightly below than above.
Head form. — The head is generally moderately rounded high meso-
to moderately brachycephalic. The face is medium Indian.
Body. — The body proportions seldom impress one with unusual
strength, yet some of the men are by no means weaklings. The most
fitting term by which to characterize conditions in this respect is
again " medium," with an occasional deviation one way or the other.
Photographs. — The accompanying photographs, taken by the
writer from Tanana to Anvik, show a few of the physiognomies.
Some of the girls and women, as well as boys and men, are quite
good looking. (Pis. 13-18.)
From Anvik downward along the river the type of the people
becomes plainly more Eskimoid and on the whole more robust. But
as one can frequently meet farther up the river individuals who
remind one more or less of the Eskimo, so here it is frequent to see
faces that look like Indian. Whether due to old mixture or to other
reason, the fact is that there is no line of somatological demarcation
in the living populations of the river, and the same applies, as will
be seen later, to the skulls.
";
Skeletal Remains of the Yukon •
The first Yukon Indian skull measured was that of a half-chief
of the Nulato group, collected in the early sixties by William H.
Dall. There are now three records of this skull, originally and again
now a Smithsonian specimen, one in Wyman ("Observations on
Crania," Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 1868, XI, 452, No. 7530), one in
the Otis "Catalogue" (35, No. 259), and one in Hrdlicka's " Cata-
logue of Human Crania in the United States National Museum
Collections" (p. 30, No. 242925). It is a normal, well-developed
male slvull, which gives no suggestion of mixture. The true meas-
urements of this " type " specimen, taken by present-day instruments
ajid methods, are as follows :
152
ANTHROPOLOGICAL. SURVEY IN ALASKA
[ETH. ANN. 46
Yukon Indian skull No. 242925
Vault :
Length cm
Breadth cm
Height to bregma cm
Cranial index
Mean height index
Height-breadth index
Cranial module (mean di-
ameter) cm
Cranial capacity c. c
Face:
Menton-nasion ( teeth but
slightly worn) cm
Alveolar point-iiasion cm
Diameter bizygomatic maxi-
mum cm
Facial index, total
Facial index, upper
Facial angle
Alveolar angle
18.
4
14
13.8 1
76'.
1
So.
2
9S
6
15.
40
1, 520
12
1
7.
3
14
S6
i
52
1
69
53
5°
Orbits :
Right-
Height cm-
Breadth cm-
Left—
Height em-
Breadth cm_.
Mean index
Nose:
Height cm-
Breadth cm_.
Index
Upper alveolar arch :
Length cm_.
Breadth cm-
Index
Basio-facial diameters :
Basion-alveolar point cm—
Basion-subnasal point_cm_
Basal-nasion cm_.
3. 25
4.2
3.45
4
81
5.1
2.5
Jfi
5.7
6.7
So.l
10.6
9.4
10.5
The skull is seen to be mesocephalic, rather high, and of good
brain capacity; the face is of medium Indian proportions; the orbits
are unequal, rather low; the nose is of medium height and breadth;
the upper dental arch, the basio-facial diameters, and the facial and
alveolar angles, are all near medium Indian.
There was another Indian skull in the five Wyman reported, but
its identity is uncertain. A later collection by Dall included three
Indian female crania from Alaska, but their exact provenience is
uncertain; their measurements are given in my catalogue.
On the 1926 trip I succeeded in collecting directly from the burials
along the lower middle Yukon 17 adult skulls and skeletons. Such
material is both scarce and dilRcult to obtain, due to the attitude
of the Indians. All the specimens in the collection are from the
Russian, times on the river. A few of the skulls show traces of
Eskimoid in their features, but none offer a suspicion of a mixture
with the whites. The measurements are given below. They partly
agree, partly disagree, with those of the Nulato skull. The vaidt,
the breadth of the nose, the dimensions of the dental arch, are much
alike, but the height of the face, nose, and orbits in the Nulato speci-
men is somewhat lower. These may be tribal but also simply indi-
vidual differences. We may generalize by stating that the lower
middle Yukon Indian was mesocephalic, with a fairly high vault,
and moderate capacity. The face was of relatively good height but
moderate breadth, resulting in a high upper facial index. Facial
and alveolar prognathism and other features apjiroach the prevalent
Indian medium.
HKDLR' KA ]
ANTHROPOLOGY OF THE YUKON
153
LOWER MIDDLE YUKON INDIAN CRANIA
SEX: MALE
Approxi-
6 S'3"
s; 3 9
t. ^ d
a
■a
sa
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2
5
J3
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a
d
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3
to
o
2
O
Collection
Locality
mate
age of
subject
1^^
las
>
1
§
M
a
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1
o
1
a
£
1
td
3
o
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03
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332512
A. HrdliCka
Magi (Bonasila) . .
Adults.,
18.4
13.8
14.0
75.0
87.0
101.4
16.40
1,480
332517
do
Ohost Creek, near
Holy Cross.
...do....
18.1
13.8
13.4
76. t
83. 8
97.1
15.10
1,375
332514
do_
do
...do....
18.0
13.9
14.0
77.2
87.5
100.7
15.30
1,425
332503
do
Qreyling River
(above Anvik).
...do
1(17.3)
(13.4)
(12. 7)
77. S
8S.6
94.8
(14.47)
(1,220)
332507
do
Ohost Creek
...do....
18.2
14.1
13.2
77.5
81.5
93.6
15.17
1,480
332526
do
do...
...do
18.5
14.4
13.7
77. «
83.5
95.1
15.53
339752
H, \V. Krieger..
do...
...do
17.5
13.9
13.5
79. i
86.0
97.1
14.97
1,515
332502
A. Hrdlifka
do
...do....
17.8
14.2
13.3
79.8
83.1
93.7
15.10
1,370
(7)
(7)
(7)
m
(7)
(7)
(7)
(6)
Total .
126.5
18.07
17.5
18.5
98.1
14-01
13.8
14.4
95.1
IS. 59
13.2
14.0
106.57
15. SI
14.97
15.53
8,645
77.5
75.0
79.8
8i.7
81.5
87.5
96.9
93.6
Ml. 4
l.Ul
Minim
um
1,370
una
1,515
Catalogue
No.
Teeth:
Wear
men-
ton-
nasion
height
(a)
Alveo-
lar
point-
nasion
height
(bj
Diam-
eter
bizygo-
niatic
maxi-
mum
(c)
Facial
index,
total
Facial
index,
upper
Ba-
sion-
alveo-
lar
point
Basion-
sub-
nasal
point
Basion-
nasioD
Facial
angle
Alveo-
lar
angle
Height
sym-
physis
332512
332517
112.3
7.5
7.4
7.7
8.1
13.4
13.4
13.3
13.6
14.1
91.8
56
55. S
57.9
59.6
10.2
10.2
10.2
10.5
8.9
8.9
9.4
9.5
8.6
10.2
9.7
10.4
10.4
10
10.4
10.1
9.7
68.5
64.5
69
66.5
61
61.5
63.5
59.5
3.9
4
332514
832503
332507
'13
'12.8
(')
97.7
94.1
4.5
3.7
3.7
332626
332552
(')
1 13
8.1
13.6
14.1
8.8
9.2
3.8
332502
91. S
57 4
10.4
62
53
4.2
(4)
51.1
It 78
12.3
13
(5)
38.8
7.76
7.4
8.1
(5)
67.8
13.16
13.3
14 1
U)
(«
(5)
61.5
10.3
10.2
10.5
(7)
63.3
9.04
8.6
9.5
(8)
80.9
10.11
9.7
10.4
(5)
(5)
(7)
27.8
Averages
Minimum. -
Maximum..
93. 9
91.8
97.7
57.1
55. S
59.6
66
62
69
55
51
63.5
3.97
3.7
4.5
(7)
95.5
13.64
13.3
14.1
Totals
f-
Maximum..
1 Premature occlusion of sagittal and subdevelopment of vault; probably a moron, facial and skeletal parts
all normal.
' Medium.
> Slight.
' Moderate.
• Cons.
8 Unknown; all lost.
88253°— 30 11
154
ANTHROPOLOGICAL, SURVEY IN ALASKA
[ETH. ANN. 46
LOWER MIDDLE YUKON INDIAN CRANIA— Continued
SEX: MALE— Continued
Catalogue No.
332512_
332517.
332514.
332503.
332507.
332526.
332552.
332502-
Orbits:
Height,
right,
left
Breadth,
right,
left
3.8
3.8
3.9
3.8
3.7
3.7
4
3.95
3.85
3.95
Orbital
index,
mean
Nose
Height
88.3
916
91. S
95. S
Breadth,
maxi-
mum
5.3
5
5.5
6.7
5.2
2.55
2.6
2.3
2.45
2.5
Nasal
index
J,8.1
62
41.8
iS
iS.l
Palate:
Exter
nal
length
(a)
5.5
5.6
5.3
5.4
External
breadth,
maxi-
mum
(b)
6.4
6.5
7
6.3
Palatal
index
SB. 9
86.1
76.7
86.7
3.9
3.9
4.15
4
Si
5.35
5.8
2.6
2.96
,50.9
Eight-
Left...
Totals
Averages...
Minimum..
Maximum.
(71
(7)
24.85
24.80
S.6S
S.5J,
3.35
3.4
3.76
3.7
O)
(7)
27.30
27.10
a. 90
3.87
3.7
3.7
4.16
4
91
91.6
V)
37.85
S.il
5
5.8
17.85
2.66
2.3
2.96
(.7)
47.:
41..
62
(5)
27.7
6.64
6.3
5.9
32.7
6.64
6.3
7
(«)
84.7
76.7
90.8
SEX: FEMALE
a
ho
■6
5^
Ap-
^ « 2
tr a c!
■sBg
•a
.a
0
"^
proxi-
aa
oi
p
"2
3
Collection
Locality
mate
age of
subject
i -
3 £"50
C3 ti^^
~a
1
s
be
i
1
•a
1
a
£
"S
73
0
a
'a
=3
aB
.''as
oS
c.
o
>
p
(0
o
ri
a
u
0
332506
A. Hrdlifka
Magi (Bonasila)...
Adult.
18.2
13.4
13.1
73. e
82.9
97.8
14.90
1,400
332520
do ---
Ghost Creek
...do...
17.9
13.2
12.7
73.7
81. 4
96.1
14.60
1,335
332508
do
Magi
...do...
17.2
12.8
13.1
74.4
87.3
102. S
14.37
1,225
332519
do
Ghost Creek
...do...
16.2
12.3
12.3
76.9
86.6
100.0
13.60
1,070
332610
do
Magi
...do...
17.6
13.5
13.2
76.7
84.6
97.8
14.77
1,375
332504
do
...-♦lo...
...do...
17.9
13.8
13. 5 77. 1
86.4
97.8
16.07
1,3.W
332525
do -.-
Ghost Creek
...do...
17.4
13.5
12. 6,77. e
81.2
9S.6
14.47
1,260
332525
do
Magi -
...do...
17.2
13.4
12.6
77.9
82.4
94-0
14.40
1,230
332522
do
Novi River
...do...
16.7
13.4
12.8
80. S
86.3
95.6
14.30
1,210
339751
H. W. Krieger.-..
Magi
...do...
16.4
13.4
12.6
81.7
84.6
94.0
14.13
1,210
(10)
(10)
(10) (M)
(.10)
(/O)
(10)
(10)
Totals
172.7
17. B7
132.7
13.27
128.4
12. 84
144.6
14.46
12,670
Averag
es -
76.8
84.1
96.8
1,267
16.4
18.2
12.3
13.8
12.3 \7S.6
81 0
92.6
102.3
13.60
15.07
1.070
Maxim
iim
13.5 l«/.7«7.S
1,400
bkdliCka]
ANTHBOPOLOGY OF THE YUKON
155
LOWER MIDDLE YUKON INDIAN CRANIA— Contmued
SEX: FEMALE— Continued
1 Catalogue
No.
Teeth:
Wear
men-
ton -
nasion
height
(a)
Alveo-
lar
point-
nasion
height
(b)
Diam-
eter
bizygo-
matic
ma.xi-
mum
(c)
Facial
index,
total
(aXIOO)
c
Facial
indes,
upper
(bxlOO)
c
Ba-
sion-
alveo-
lar
point
Basion-
sub-
Divsal
point
Basion-
nasion
Facial
angle
Alveo-
lar
angle
Height
of
sym-
physis
332506
332520
1 12.1
7.5
6.9
-7
6.7
-7
-8
6.8
7.1
6.7
12.7
13.3
12.6
12.1
-12
13.6
12.9
12.8
13.3
13.1
9o.S
69.1
61.9
66.6
66. i
68. S
66
9.9
10.6
9.6
9.3
9.7
10.4
8.8
• 9.4
8.5
7.8
8.4
9.1
8.7
8.4
8.6
8.5
-10
9.7
9.9
8.8
9.5
10.5
9.9
9.6
-10.
9.3
-69
-63
-71
64.6
-67
-68
-64
-62
-61
42.6
-51
54.6
3.8
332508
332519
no. 8
86.7
-3
332510-
332504
332525
+11.6
>13. 1
W
'11.8
96.7
91. S
3.7
3.9
3.6
332505
332522
9S.S
6S.1
Si.l
61.1
9.5
9.2
9.6
-70
74.6
-67
-51
-64
48.5
3.7
332751
•11
-84
3.36
Totals
(6)
70.4
11.73
10.8
13.1
(9)
63.7
7.08
6.7
-8
(10)
128.4
IS. Si
-12
13.6
(6)
(9)
(9)
87.8
9.76
9.2
10.6
(10)
86.2
8.62
7.8
9.4
(10)
97.2
9. 71
8.8
10.5
(9)
(9)
(7)
26.05
Averages...
Minimum.,
Maximum..
91.7
-Si
96.7
66.1
61.1
69.1
-6S
-63
74.5
-6S
42.6
-64
S.68
-3
3.9
Catalogue No.
332506.
332520.
332508.
332519.
332510.
332504.
332525.
332505.
332622.
332751 .
Right.
Left...
Total..
■ll-.
Average..]. '
Minimum. -■
Maximum..] "
Orbits:
Height,
right,
left
3.65
3.6
3.3
3.4
3.7
3.4
3.5
3.3
3.2
3.7
3.65
1 3.26
j 3.8
1 3.6
I 3.7
i 3.6
I 3.1
I 3.2
(9)
(9)
31.55
31
3.61
3.44
3.1
3.2
3.8
3.65
Breadth,
right,
left
3.8
3.8
3.7
3.7
4
3,7
3.66
3.66
3.66
3.95
4.06
3.8
3.95
3.86
3.96
3.95
3.8
3.7
(9)
(9)
34.4
34.05
S.Sl
S.78
3.55
3.55
4
4.05
Orbital
index,
mean
;
6
9S.S
I 90.
95.9
91.6
91.9
86. 6
S4
(9)
(9)
91.7
91
Nose:
Height
5.5
4.76
6.2
4.7
4.7
6.4
5.15
4.9
5.46
6
(10)
60.76
6.07
4.7
6.6
Breadth,
maxi-
mum
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.3
2.3
2.16
2.2
2.35
2.3
2.4
(10)
23.1
S.Sl
2.15
2.5
Nasal
index
iO
60. b
iS.I
48.9
48.9
39.8
4i.7
48
ii.2
m
46.6
S9.8
60.6
Palate:
Exter-
nal
length
(a)
6.2
6.4
5.2
5.4
5.3
6.7
5.3
5
6.3
(9)
47.8
6. SI
5
6.7
Rxtemal
brciidth,
maxi-
mum
(b)
6.1
6
6.8
5.5
6.4
6.7
5.8
(9)
55.4
e.ie
6.6
6.7
Palatal
index
86. t
90
89.7
98 B
8g.a
86. t
91. i
75.8
SI. 6
(9)
76.8
98. e
I Slight.
' Cons,
* Medium.
< Moderate.
' U. medium; 1. mod.
156 ANTHEOPOLOGICAIi SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ann, 46
Skeletal Parts
There are seven adult skeletons of males and seven of females. For
present purposes it will suffice to take the males alone and to restrict
consideration to the long bones. The essential data on these are
given on page 160, where they are contrasted with those of North
American Indians in general, and with those of the western Eskimo.
The bones show both relations to as well as differences from the
bones of Indians in general and fair distinctness from those of the
Eskimo.
Contrasted with the long bones of miscellaneous North American
tribes taken together, the Yukon Indian bones show absolutely
slightly shorter humerus (or arm), somewhat shorter radius (or
forearm), a slightly shorter femur (or upper part of the leg), and
a plainly shorter tibia. These Indians had therefore relatively some-
what shorter forearm and especially the leg below the knees than their
continental cousins. These facts are plainly evident from the radio-
humeral and tibio-femoral indices of the two groups. In this rela-
tive shortness of the distal parts of the limbs the Yukon Indian ap-
proaches the Eskimo, standing near midway between the Indian in
general and the Eskimo. There might be a ready temptation to
attribute this to a mixture with the Eskimo ; but an examination of
the records will show that the same condition, so far at least as the
upper limb is concerned (lower?), is already present in the old
Bonasila skeleton, which gives no suggestion of an Eskimo mixture.
It is more likely, therefore, that these are generalized characteristics
of functional origin such as a considerable use of the small canoes.
This view seems to be supported by the relative strength of the bones.
In the Yukon Indian the humerus is stouter, the femur of the same
strengtii, and the tibia very perceptibly weaker than they are in Indi-
ans in general. In the Eskimo, with even greater dependence on the
canoe, both the humerus and the fenuir are notably stouter, while
the tibia is weaker, than are similar bones in the Indians in general.
The humero-femoral index in the Yukon Indians is unusually
high, indicating a relative shortness of the femur. This character
is not present in the Eskimo, nor in the continental Indian. It is
probably also of old functional origin, though this for the present
must remain a mere suggestion.
All of this shows clearly the interest and value of other skeletal
parts than the skull, and particularly of the long bones, for anthro-
pological studies.
Skeletal Remains from the Bank at Bonasila
The skeletal material from the bank at Bonasila consists now of
portions of three adult skulls, one male and two females, and of 13
bones of the male skeleton. All the specimens are more or less
hrdlicka]
ANTHROPOLOGY OF THE YUKON
157
stained by manganese and iron and all are distinctly heavier than
normal, sliowing some grade of fossilization. They closely resemble
in all these respects the numerous animal bones from the bank and
in all differ from the later surface burials of the place.
THE CRANIA
Tlie male skull, No. 332513, is represented by the frontal bone
united with a larger part of the face, a separated left temporal, and
the right half of the lower jaw. A large Inca bone, recovered from
the beach a year later, may also belong to the same specimen. The
missing parts are probably still somewhere in the sands of the
beach where there is going on a very instructive scattering and redep-
osition on a 4 to 6 feet lower level of the contents of the old bank.
The skull is that of a male of somewhat over 50 years of age, judg-
ing from the moderate to marked wear of the remaining teeth. It is
a normal undeformed specimen, and the same applies to the bones
of the skeleton.
Notes and measurements. — The frontal shows a medium develop-
ment, no slope. The supraorbital ridges are rather weakly developed
for a male, leaving the upper borders of the orbits rather sharp.
Cm.
Diameter frontal minimum t>. 75
Diameter frontal maximum 11.8
Diameter nasion-bregma 11. 5
The skull as a whole was evidently mesocephalic, and neither low
nor very high. The thickness of the frontal is about medium for
an Indian.
The face is of medium proportions and strength, with rather large
orbits, good interorbital breadth, medium malars. medium broad
nose, and but moderate alveolar prognathism. The nasal bridge is
not high, nasal bones fairly broad, spine moderate, lower borders
well defined though not sharp. The submalar (canine) fossae are
shallow.
Measurements
Alveolar point-nasion
height cm 7.8
Facial breadth about medium
for an Indian.
Nose:
Height cm 5.5
Breadth, near cm 2. 7ri
Index 50
Left orbit:
Height cm 3. 75
Breadth cm 4
Index 93. 7
Minimum interorbital dis-
tance cm 2.6
Upper dental arch :
Length, approximately-cm 5. 6
Breadth, approxi-
mately cm 7
Index, approximately SO
Lower jaw :
Height at symphysis ap-
proximately em
Thickness at Mj (witii the
tooth held midway be-
tween branches of com-
pass) cm
Height of asc. ramus cm
Breadth minimum of asc.
ramus cm
4.1
1.5
6.9
158
ANTHEOPOLOGICAl, SURVEY IN ALASKA
[BTH. ANN. 46
The condyloid process of the lower jaw is high, mandibular notch
deep. The whole jaw is strong but not thick or massive. It is In-
dianlike, not Eskimoid, in all its features. The teeth are of good
medium size.
Skull No. 333383.— Oi this skull I brought the right parietal with
about one-third of the frontal ; Mr. Krieger, a year later, the remain-
der of the frontal. Other parts are missing.
The specimen was evidently a good-size female skull, normal, un-
deformed, probably mesocephalic in form, and moderately high. The
thickness of the bones is not above moderate.
Cm.
Diameter frontal minimum 9.7
Diameter frontal maximum 12.5
Diameter nasion-bregma 11.1
Skull No. 3339S0. — Of the third skull, recovered from the sands
of the beach at low water in 1927 by Mr. Lawrence, there are only
the two parietals. The specimen is that of a young adult female.
The bones, rather submedium in thickness, indicate a skull of slightly
smaller size and slightly shorter than the preceding but of much the
same general type.
The skeletal parts of mal^ No. 332613. — Humeri : The long bones
all give the impression of straightness, length, and of a certain
gracility of form combined with strength, but without massiveness.
The right humerus presents a small but distinct supracondylar proc-
ess, a rarity among Indians. The fossae ai"e not perforated. Meas-
urements :
Length, maximum :
Riglit cm— 35.8
Left cm__ 35.3
Major diameter at middle:
Right cm— 2.5
Left cm__ 2. 4
Minor diameter at middle:
Right cm— 1. 65
Left cm— 1.6
Index at middle :
Right 65
Left 66.'i
at middle,
cm.
cm_
Type of shaft
prismatic :
Right
Left
Right radius :
Length, maximum,
near cm 27
Radio-humeral index, ap-
proximately 75. 5
There is but small
The shaft approaches type IV (quadrilateral),
curvature.
Eight ulna: Lacks the olecranon; shaft prismatic, with anterior
and posterior surfaces fluted; but a moderate curvature backward
upper third.
HBDLK^KA] AjSTTHEOPOLOGY
OF
THE YUKON
159
Femora :
Femora — Continued.
Length, bicondylar, right
Diameter maximum at up-
cm
48.2
per flattening —
Humero-femoral index
7^.3
Right cm__
3.5
Diameter autero-posterior
Left cm_.
3.7
maximum at middle —
Diameter minimum at up-
Right cm —
3.05
per flattening —
Left cm__
3.2
Right cm__
2.1
Diameter lateral maximum
Left cm-
2.25
at middle —
Index at upper flattening — ■
Eight cm
2.5
Right
60
Left cm__
2.65
Left
GO.S
Index at middle —
Type shaft at middle —
Right
S2
Right
1
Left
82\.S
Left, near
1
The bones, especially the right, are remarkable for their graceful
form and approach to straightness. The linea aspera is high but
not massive or rough.
Right tibia : Length ( ? ) , extremities wanting. A moderate physio-
logical curvature forward, middle third.
Diameter antero-posterior at middle, right cm 3. 25
Diameter lateral at middle cm 1.95
Index at middle 60
The bone is distinctly platycnaemic, as the femora are platymeric
and the humeri platybrachic, a harmony of characters which is often
met with in the continental Indian.
ADDITIONAL PARTS
These include four ribs, the atlas and two lumbar vertebrae. The
first rib ai^proaches the semicircular in type and is rather large,
indicating a spacious chest. Otherwise there is nothing special.
A comparison of the long bones of this interesting skeleton with
those of the later Indians from the same and near-by localities as
well as with those of the western Eskimo (see table, p. 160) shows
a number of striking conditions. The length of the bones of the
skeleton is far above the mean of both those of Indians and the
Eskimo, indicating a stature of at least 10 centimeters (4 inches)
higher. In none of their characteristics are tlie bones near to tho.se
of the Eskimo, making it doubly certain that the subject was not of
that affiliation. Comi^ared with those of the later Indians of the
same territory, the bones show in one line remarkable differences, in
another remarkable likenesses. The differences concern all the rela-
tive proportions of the shafts — the bones of the old skeleton give
without exception indices that are markedly lower; they are dis-
tinctly more platybrachic, platymeric, and platycnaemic. But the
more basic humero-femoral and radio-humeral indices are practically
160
ANTHROPOLOGICAL, SURVEY IN ALASKA
[ETH. ANN. 46
the same; showing fundamental identity. The hiimero-femoral
index is esiDecially important in this case. It is exceptionally high in
the Yukon Indians, due to a relatively long humerus, and the same
condition is seen in the old skeleton. It seems safe, therefore, to
conclude that the owner of the old skeleton was not only an Indian
but an Indian of the same ishysical stock from which were derived
the later Indians of the Yukon ; but he was evidently of an earlier
and differe-nt tribe or of a purer derivation than those who followed.
To more fully establish and then trace this type, both as to its
derivation and extension, will be tasks of future importance.
YUKON INDIANS : MAIN LONG BONES
SEX: MALES 1
Paired bones
Yukon Indians
Older
skeleton
at Bona-
sila
From
Russian
times
Miscel-
laneous
North
American
Indians
Western
Eskimos
Humerus:
Mean length
At middle —
Diameter, major.
Diameter, minor.
Index
Radius:
Mean length
Radio-humeral index..
Femur:
Mean length (bicondylar)
Ilumero-femoral index
At middle —
Diameter, antero-posterior, maximum.
Diameter, lateral
Index.
At upper flattening —
Diameter, maximum
Diameter, minimum ,
Index ._
Tibia:
Mean length
Tibio-femoral index..
At middle —
Diameter, antero-posterior, maximum..
Diameter, lateral
Index
(2)
35,55
2.45
1.68
ee.i
(1)
n.27
1. 7S. B
(2)
48.2
IIS
3.12
2.57
8S.I,
3.60
2.18
60. i
(1)
3.25
1.95
eo
(10)
31.17
2.38
1.67
70
(10)
23.61
75. 7
(H)
41.92
7i.5
2.96
2.58
S7.t
3.26
2.30
70.7
(14)
34.19
81.5
3.04
2.
66
' (378)
31.8
2.22
1.63
73.1
(378)
24.7
77.7
' (902)
42.7
n. 72.5
2.96
2.58
87. S
3.27
2.42
74
(324)
36.9
84.4
3.28
2.16
6S.S
'(76)
30.88
2.42
1.82
75.2
(76)
22.86
7i
(84)
42.70
Q. — 72
3.03
2.71
89.5
3.37
2.48
7S.B
(84)
33.61
78.7
3.10
2.12
88.1
' See also data in writer's "Physical Anthropology of the Lenape," etc.. Bull. 62, Bur. Amer. Ethn.,
Washington, 1916; and his " Anthropology of Florida." Fla. Hist. Soc. Pub. No. 1, Deland. Fla.. 1922.
' These numbers apply to length only: under the other items the numbers are in some cases smaller, in
some larger. The differences are due to defects in some of the old bones.
3 See also data on p. 165.
hbdliCka] anthropology OF THE YUKON 161
The Yukon Eskimo
the livtng
As with the Indians farther up the river, the necessities of the
writer's journey did not permit more than visual observations, but
in 1927 Henry B. Collins, jr., succeeded in measuring six adult males
at Marshall.
In general, the people of the Yukon delta and from this to Paimute
are true Eskimo. By this is meant that in the majority of indi-
viduals they can readily be told as a tyjje apart from the Indian and
belonging plainly to that of the extensive family of the Eskimo.
But when the differences are to be defined the task is not easy ; some
of the distinguishing marks, though well appreciated, are somewhat
intangible.
The physical differences are essentially those of the lihysiognomy.
The head is neither narrow nor scaphoid, or even very high. The
Indian face is more prominent and more sculptured; that of the
Eskimo appears fuller, especially in the lower part, and flatter. Part
of this is due to the bony structure, part to the differing amounts
of fat. An eversion of the angles of the lower jaw, M'hich is relatively
frequent and sometimes excessive in the Eskimo male while almost
absent in the Indian, may give the Eskimo face almost a square ap-
pearance. Take with this the seemingly somewhat low Eskimo fore-
head, the not verj^ widely open and somewhat on the whole more
slanting eye, and the characteristic Eskimo nose with its rather
narrow and not prominent nasal bridge, the ridiculous monklike cut
of the hair (in the older males), the often rather full lips with, in
the males, a tuft of sparse mustache above each corner of the mouth;
add to all this a mostly smiling or ready-to-smile " full-moon " ex-
pression, and it would be impossible to take the subject for anything
else than an Eskimo. The Indian's face is more set, less fat, in the
males at least, less broad below, with seemingly a higher forehead,
sensibly made-up hair, not seldom a bit more mustache, and a nose
that generally is both broader and more prominent.
But the differences are less marked in the women and still less so
in the children, especially where similarly combed and clothed. And
there are, pai'ticularly on the Yukon, not a few of both Indian and
Eskimo who even an expert is at a loss where to class. They may be
due to old mixtures ; no new ones are taking place ; but it seems that
there may be present another important factor, that of a far-back
related parentage.
In the color of the skin and eyes, in the color and nature of the
hair, there is no marked difference between the two peoples of the
Yukon. In stature the Eskimos are slightly higher.
162 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SUBVEY IN ALASKA [EIH. ANN. 46
MEASUREMENTS ON LIVING TTIKON ESKIMO
The exact provenience of the six men measured at Marshall is
uncertain, but they seemingly were all from the lower Yukon and
all were apparently full-blood Eskimo. But the measurements are
rather peculiar. They are given, for comparison, with those of the
western Eskimo in general (p. 165). They approach nearest to those
of the Togiak Eskimo, well down below the Kuskokwim. They
show a higher stature than all of their relations farther south, ex-
cept the Togiaks, and they have a rounder head. They .oi-e, in fact,
moderate brachycephals, a veiy unexpected form in this strain of
people. The Togiaks also are brachycephalic. The vault is rel-
atively somewhat higher than it is in the other groups, though the
height is not excessive. The nose is slightly lower as well as nar-
rower than it is in all the other contingents. The face is close to
those of St. Lawrence Island. The ear is jDerceptibly smaller and
especially narrower than elsewhere, but perhaps the age factor enters
into the case. The hand is much like that of Togiak and St. Law-
rence, the index being identical.
The brachycephaly of the group for the present is hard to explain.
It can not be ascribed to a mixture with the river Indians, for these,
as has been seen from the skulls, were meso- rather than brachy-
cephalic. There is need here for further inquiry.
SKELETAL REMAINS OF YUKON ESKIMO
As with the Indian, such remains are still rare. Some measure-
ments of three " Smithsonian Mahlemute " skulls from the Yukon,
collected by William H. Dall, are given by Jeffries Wyman, and
probably the same sjoecimens appear in the Otis Catalogue, the meas-
urements in which are regrettably not very reliable. These speci-
mens can not now be located, and the scarce data are of but little
value. The three skulls examined by Wyman were all mesocephalic.
It is now possible to report on 40 adult skulls from the lower
Yukon and the delta. An abstract of the measurements is given in
the next table. The data indicate a considerable local variation.
All the skulls, or very nearly all, are mesocephalic; but they differ
considerably in height and in all the facial features. The Pilot
Station group, from the apex of the delta, and hence the midst of
the Eskimo territory on the Yukon, is especially peculiar. Both the
vault and the face, in the series as a whole, range from low to high,
and much the same is true of the height of the nose and that of the
orbits, while the palate is exceptionally broad, giving a low index,
all of which would seem to indicate instability or conditions in
UBDLICKA]
ANTHROPOLOGY OF THE YUKON
163
change, together probably with admixtures from farther up the
river. We need more material, particularly from the stretch of the
river between the apex of the delta and Paimute.
YUKON ESKIMO CRANIA
UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEI0M
17 males
Pilot
station
"Lower
Yukon'
Kashu-
nolc (of
Yuiton)
Kotlik
and
Pastolik
23 females
Pai-
mute
Pilot
Station
Kashu-
nok
mouth
Kotlik
and
Pastolik
Number of adult skulls
Collector __ _,
Vault:
Length
Breadth
Height
Module
Capacity
Cranial index
Mean height, index
Height-breadth, index
Face:
Menton-nasion
Alveolar point-nasion
Diameter bizygomoticmax-
imum
Facial index, total _
Facial index, upper
Orbits:
Mean height
Mean breadth
Mean index
Nose:
Height
Breadth
Index
Upper alveolar arch:
Length
Breadth _,
Index
Basi-facial diameters:
Basion-alveolar point
Basion-subnasal point
Basion-nasion
Facial angle_
Alveolar angle
Height of lower jaw at symphy-
(3)
18.90
15.07
13.77
15.91
,660
79.7
81. e
91.4
12.40
7.85
14.97
Si.i
BS.S
3.58
4.07
S7.7
5.27
2.67
iS.7
6.70
7.40
77
10.35
9.07
10.60
70
55
3.63
CD
C)
18.8
14.2
13.7
15.57
1,535
75.5
SS
96.5
(2)
(!)
18.45
14.10
13.65
15.40
1,408
78. i
SS.9
96.8
7.1
14.4
3.55
4
88. 7
5.05
2.15
4S.6
5.4
6.6
81.8
n.10.3
9.4
10.8
74
60
57.9
3.80
3.91
97.1
6.65
2.28
iO.S
5.4
6.65
SI. 2
10.15
9.10
10.16
66
60
(11)
m
18.44
13.90
13.60
15.31
1,486
75. i
811
97.8
12.67
7.78
14.13
90.1
55
3.67 I
3.98
9tS
5.53
2.51
i5.i
5.57
.6.70
10.40
9.17
10.41
68
52
3.76
(1)
(=)
18.7
H
n.l3. 6
15.40
7 J,. 9
n.8S. S
71.96. i
(3)
17.80
14
13.20
16
1,442
78.7
8S
9i.S
11.90
7.40
13.47
89.1
55
3.54
3.89
91
5
2.33
i6.7
5.40
6.60
81.8
10.17
8.80
9.97
67
52
3.67
(1)
(')
18.7
13.9
12.4
16
7 J,. 3
76.1
89.2
3.60
3.80
92.1
6.60
2.45
U.5
8.90
10.20
(18)
(■')
17.72
3.62
13.04
14.81
1,359
76.8
83. B
95. S
11.82
7.49
13. 26
89
56.5
3.62
3.86
94.1
5.19
2.31
U.5
6.45
6.38
85.4
10.09
8.86
9.98
67
53
3.56
' Howgate & Schwatka Exp.
! Rev. P. I. Delon.
i A. HrdliCka.
SKELETAL PARTS OF THE TUKON ESKIMO
The next table gives the measurements of the long bones in both
sexes in the Yukon Indian (for comparison), in the Yukon Eskimo,
and in the western Eskimo, the latter coming mainly from the coast
164 ANTHKOPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 40
south of the Yukon and from the Nunivak and St. Lawrence Islands.
The Yukon Eskimo material, collected from intact burials by the
writer, is unfortunately limited to the northern mouth of the river.
The skeletons from St. Lawrence Island were collected on the
Smithsonian exi^edition to th^ place in 1912 by Riley D. Moore,
1927 expedition by H. B. Collins, jr., and T. D. Stewart, all of the
National Museum.
The Yukon Eskimo show perceptibly longer bones than do either
the Indians or the southeastern and mid western Eskimo, indicating
a somewhat taller stature.
The humerus in the males is less broad than either in the Indians
or the midwestern and southwestern Eskimo and has as a consequence
high shaft index; but in the females the index in the Yukon and
western Eskimo series is identical. The radius is relatively even
shorter in the Yukon that it is in the other Eskimo, giving low radio-
humeral index.
The femur is notably less platymeric in the male and slightly less
so in the female Yukon Eskimo than it is in both the Indians and
the rest of the southwestern and midwestern Eskimo, giving a higher
index at the upper flattening. The meaning of these facts is not
obvious and they may undergo some modification with more material.
As to strength, measured by the mean diameter of the shafts, the
Yukon Eskimo in comparison to the southwestern and midwestern
show a slightly weaker humerus, and in the males a sliglitly weaker
femur at middle, but in the males again, a slightly stronger tibia.
If, however, the mean diameters of the bones are taken in relation
to the length of the bones, then in both sexes and in all the parts the
southwestern and midwestern Eskimo are slightly stronger. This
would seem to indicate more exertion, with harder life, among the
coastal and insular than among the river Eskimo. As a matter of
fact Kotlik and the near-by Pastolik, from which our skeletons came,
were favorably situated at the northern mouth of the river.
The Yukon Eskimo females, as compared with the males, have a
somewhat weaker and especially somewhat flatter humerus, with a
consequently lower shaft index; they have relatively even a shorter
radius, giving a lower radio-humeral index; their humerus itself is
relatively short, giving a lower humero-femoral index ; their femur is
relatively somewhat flatter at the upper flattening, giving a lower
index of platj'mery; while their tibia is relatively less strong antero-
posteriorly, resulting in an index that is more than four points higher
than that of the males.
hrdliOka]
ARCHEOLOGY OF WESTERN ESKIMO
165
YUKON INDIAN, YUKON ESKIMO. AND WESTERN ESKIMO LONG
BONES '
Paired bones of the two sides
Humerus:
Mean length (right and left)
At middle —
Diameter, major _
Diameter, minor.
Index
Radius:
Mean length..
Radio-humeral index..
Femur:
Mean length (bicond.)
Humero-femoral index _
At middle —
Diameter antero-posterior maxi-
imnm
Diameter lateral
Index
At upper flattening^
Diameter, maximum
Diameter, minimum
Index ,
Tibia:
Mean length (I. A.) ,
Tibio-femoral index.
At middle —
Diameter, antero-posterior mas-
imnm
Diameter, lateral
Index
Male
Yukon
Indian
(10)
31.17
2.38
1.67
m
(10)
23.61
75.7
(14)
41.92
2.96
2.58
SI.l
3.25
2.30
70.7
(14)
34.19
S/.5
3.04
2
66
Yukon
Eskimo
(16)
32.10
2.33
1.80
IS.i
(16)
23.44
7S
(22)
43.78
n. 73
3.05
2.67
87.6
3.31
2.57
77.4
(22)
35.14
80. S
3.16
2.15
68.3
South-
western
and niid-
westem
Eskimo
(143)
30.69
2.40
1.80
7S.1
(98)
22.90
74. S
(196)
42.50
3.08
2.70
87.6
3.35
2.51
76
(141)
33.86
79.7
3.12
2.12
67.9
Female
Yukon
Indian
(4)
28.12
1.90
1.40
7S.7
(4)
21.10
(8)
40.16
7S
2.69
2.46
94.7
2.84
2.16
75. «
(8)
31.97
79.6
2.72
1.82
66.9
Yukon
Eskimo
(16)
28.31
2.07
1.61
73. S
(16)
20.18
71.3
(27)
41.11
n.69
2.74
2.44
3.02
2.27
7S.4
(27)
32.01
79.8
2.61
1.90
72. S
South-
western
and mid*-
western
Eskimo
(136)
28.40
2.10
1.64
75.2
(109)
20.60
7S.2
(132)
39.36
72. S
2.69
2.46
91. S
3.02
2.26
71 S
(147)
31.32
79. S
2.71
1.89
69.9
' See also data on p. 160.
NOTES ON THE ARCHEOLOGY OF THE WESTERN
ESKIMO REGION
Archeological work in the va.st area of the western Eskimo is still
in its infancy. Until the 1926 Smithsonian expedition nothing what-
ever had been done in this line in the Eskimo parts of the south-
western coasts of Alaska -^ or on the Kiiskokwim or Yukon Rivers.
Some time between 1877 and 1881 E. W. Nelson made limited exca-
vations on St. Michael Island -'^ (see p. 170) and also dug on Whale
Island.
^ Dall, W. H., and Jochelson, W., made, as is well known, valuable excavations In the
Aleutian Islands ; but the Aleuts were not E.skimos. (See Cat. of Crania, etc., U.S.N.M.,
1D24, 39.)
^ Nelson, E. W., The Eskimo About Bering Strait ; Eighteenth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer.
Ethn., pt. 1, Washington, 1800, p. 263.
166 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA rBTH. ANN. 46
In 1912 V. Stefansson excavated at Barrow.-' Having two months
to spend at this place he engaged numerous Eskimo of the village and
had them excavate the native village sites in the neighborhood. He
says (p. 388) : " It was a small army that turned out to dig wherever
there was a ruin or a kitchen midden, and they worked energetically
and well. While the excavations were not done as methodically and
scientifically as could have been wished, still we were able to get from
them a collection of over 20,000 archaeological specimens within the
space of six weeks. This collection (which is now safely stored in
the American Museum of Natural History) brings out man}' signifi-
fcant and some revolutionary ideas with regard to the prehistoric
history of the Eskimo. My method was to dig as much as possible
myself, and to go around as best I could to see the others at work. In
many cases I was able to see the exact position from which the im-
portant finds were taken." The specimens have since in part been
described by Wissler.^' Stefansson brought also some archeological
specimens from Point Hope, where, however, no excavations were
made; and collected a valuable series of crania from Point Barrow.
In 1917-19 excavations near Barrow were conducted by W. B. Van
Valin, leader of the John Wanamaker expedition to northwestern
Alaska, for the Univei'sity Museum at Philadelphia. The excava-
tions were made in some mounds located about 8 miles southwest of
Barrow and about 1,000 yards back from the beach on the tundra,
and uncovered six old igloos containing, aside from many cultural
objects, the skeletal remains of 83 individuals. These remains have
since been found to be those of an intrusive group of people and to
be of special interest.^'
In 1924 Easmussen during the last parts of his great journey
gathered numerous archeological specimens at Point Hope and from
other localities along the west coasts of Alaska.
In 1926, finally, the year of mj' survey, some careful initial excava-
tions, with very interesting results, were carried on at Wales and
on the Little Diomede Island by Dr. D. Jenness, of the National
Museum of Canada, Ottawa. A preliminary report on the results
of this work has been published in the annual report of the National
Museum of Canada for 1926.
Besides such more professional work a good deal of archeological
collection has been done in the regions under consideration by local
people, particularly traders and teachers; and the demand for speci-
^ My Lifo with tho Eskimo. N. Y., 1913, 387, 388. See also his The Stefansson-Ander-
son Arctic Expedition : Preliminary Ethnological Report. Anthrop. Tapers Am. Mus. Nat.
Hist, XIV, N. Y., 1914.
™ Wissler, Clark, Harpoons and Darts in the Stefdnsson Collection. Anthrop. Papers
Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., N. Y., 1916, XIV, 401-443.
=» Sec section devoted to this find, p. 318.
hrdliOka] AECHEOLOGY OF WESTERN ESKIMO 167
mens has made assiduous excavators of some of the Eskimo them-
selves, particularly at Point Hope and at St. Lawrence Island.
Beginning with the north, the first white man to be mentioned
in this connection is Charles Brower, the well-known trader at
Barrow. Mr. Brower has not only aided all the explorers who
have reached this northernmost point, but he has also been directly
instrumental in excavating and the making of archeological col-
lections, though, regrettably, some of these have been scattered.
During 1925-26 there lived at Point Hope a very active and inter-
esting man, sent there by the Fox Film Co. to photograph the
Eskimo — Mr. Merle La Voy. La Voy, whom I met at Point Hope
and who for a time became our fellow-passenger on the Bear, had
not only succeeded remarkably in his own line, but had also amassed
during his stay a large archeological collection. He did not exca-
vate himself, and unfortunately paid no attention to the scientific
side of the case; but by offering the natives sugar, tea, chocolate,
chewing gum, tobacco, etc. in exchange for specimens, he so stimu-
lated them that they engaged most assiduously in the excavation, or
rather picking over as they thawed, of their old ruins, and brought
him thousands of objects, some of which are of considerable interest.
At the time of my visit there were several barrels full of specimens,
largely of stone and ivory. Skulls and bones, regrettably, were
neglected and reburied in the debris. Later this collection was
transjDorted to San Francisco, where it remains at the date of this
writing, in Mr. La Voy's possession.
At Kotzebue Mr. Tom Berryman, the trader, has made some col-
lections of Eskimo archeological material, from which I benefited
for the National Museum ; and the local teacher, Mr. C. S. Replogle,
informed me that he had a large collection at his home in the States.
At Nome I found a valuable lot of specimens in fossil ivory, pot-
tery, and stone, in the possession of the well-known Lomen bi'others,
members of one of the foremost families in Alaska. The best parts
of this collection I was fortunate to secure for exhibit in the United
States National Museum.
A large and valuable collection of western Eskimo archeological
material was made some years ago by Dr. Daniel Neuman. A part
of this collection is in the museum at Juneau; the whereabouts of
the rest and of Doctor Neuman himself I was unable to discover.
There are several collections of archeological material from the
western Eskimo region at Seattle and San Francisco, but none repre-
sents scientific excavation.
The names of Joe Bernard, Prof. H. N. Sverdrup, and O. W.
Geist should be mentioned in this connection, all having collected
archeological objects in the western Eskimo region. Many speci-
168 ANTHEOPOLOGICAL SUEVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ann. 46
mens of value collected by these men and others are in various
museums or in private hands in Fairbanks, along the west coast or in
Europe.
My own small part in the archeology of Bering Sea and the north-
western coast of Alaska was, as ah-eady stated, mainly that of mak-
ing a survey of conditions. The object was to obtain a good general
view of what there was in the line of archeological sites and re-
mains, and thus help to lay a foundation for more organized re-
search in the future. In addition all possible effort was made to
collect and obtain specimens of distinct archeological value. Both of
these endeavors met with results of some importance.
Old Sites in the Region of the Western Eskimo
The shores of the Alaska rivers, the littoral parts of Alaska, the
more northern Bering Sea islands, and those portions of the Asiatic
coast that were once or are still occupied by the Eskimo, are strewn
with " dead " villages and old sites. Many of these dead villages or
sites are historic, having been abandoned, or very nearly so, since
the coming of the whites ; some are older, in instances doubtless con-
siderably older. Collectively they offer a large, almost wholly vir-
ginal and highly important field to American archeology. They
may contain much of the secrets of Eskimo origin and of his cul-
tural, as well perhaps as physical, evolution. But these secrets are
not to be given up easily. They are held within a perpetually
frozen ground, which on one hand preserves everything, but on the
other will not yield its contents except to assiduous and prolonged
labor.
Ruined or " dead " villages began to be encountered by the earliest
Russian and other explorers. Beechey (1826) tells us that between
approximately the latitude of Nelson Island and Point Barrow
(60° 34' to 71° 24' N.) they noticed 19 (Eskimo) villages, some
of which were very small and consisted only of a few huts, and
others appeared to have been deserted a long time.^"
Hooper, in 1884, reports Eskimo ruins on the Asiatic side:
" Near the extremity of the cape [Wankarem] we found the ruins
of houses similar to those now in use by the Innuits, half under-
ground, with frames of the bones of whales. Probably they were
former dwellings of Innuits, who for some reason crossed the
straits and attempted to establish themselves on the Siberian side.
These houses have been found by different travelers at many places
along this coast, and various causes assigned for the abandonment
of the attempt to settle here by the Innuits. * * *
'" Beechey, P. W., Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Bering's Strait. Phila.,
1832, 474.
HEDLiCka] ABCHEOLOGY OF WESTERN ESKIMO 169
"At Cape Wankarem and at other places on the Siberian coast we
found the ruins of houses sfinilar to those now in use by the Innuits.
These houses, which have been found by different travelers at many
places along that coast, are not at all like those used by the Tchukt-
chis, which, on account of the migratory habits of the reindeer
tribes, are so constructed that they can be taken down and put up
again at will." ^^
Ray and Murdoch both speak of old sites. The very spot they
selected for their observatory at Barrow was one of these. Ray says
of it:
"A point about 12 feet above the sea level, lying between the sea
and a small lagoon three-fourths of a mile northeast from Uglaamie,
was finally selected. The soil was firm and as dry as any unoccupied
place in that vicinity, and as it was marked by mounds of an ancient
village would be free from inundation." ^-
And farther on :
" That the ancestors of those people have made it their home for
ages is conclusively shown by the ruins of ancient villages and win-
ter huts along the seashore and in the interior. On the point where
the station was established were mounds marking the site of three
huts dating back to the time when they had no iron and men ' talked
like dogs'; also at Perigniak a group of mounds mark the site of
an ancient village. It stands in the midst of a marsh ; a sinking of
the land causing it to be flooded and consequently abandoned, as
it is their custom to select the high and dry points of land along
the seashore for their permanent villages. The fact of our finding
a pair of wooden goggles 26 feet below the surface of the earth,
in the shaft sunk for earth temperatures, points conclusively to the
great lapse of time since these shores were first peopled by the race
of man." ^^
The village of Sidaru. southwest of Cape Belcher, which in Ray's
time had a population of about 50, has since gone " dead."
The most direct attention to this subject has been given by Nelson.
In his excellent large memoir on " The Eskimo about Bering
Strait " ^* he states as follows :
" Ruins of ancient Eskimo villages are common on the lower Yukon
and thence along the coast line to Point Barrow. On the Siberian
" Hooper, C. L., Report of Arctic Cruise ot the Revenue Steamer Corwin, 18S1. Wash-
ington, 18S4, 63, 90.
'^ R.iy, Lieut. P. H., Report of the International Polar Expedition to Point Barrow,
Alaska. Washington, 1S8.5, 22.
^ Ray, P. H., Ethnographic Sketch of the Natives. Report of the International Polar
ExpcdiHon to Point Barrow, Alaska. Washington. 1S8S, 37.
'' Eighteenth Ann. Kept, Bur. Amer. Eth., pt. 1, Washington, 1900, 203 et seq.
88253°— 30 12
170 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ann. 4e
shore they were seen from East Cape along the Arctic coast to Cape
Wankarem. ...
" On the shore of the bay on the southern side of St. Michael Island
I dug into an old village site where saucer-shape pits indicated the
places formerly occupied by houses. The village had been burned,
as was evident from the numerous fragments of charred timbers
mixed with the soil. In the few cubic feet of earth turned up at
this i^lace were found a slate fish knife, an ivory spearhead, a doll,
and a toy dish, the latter two cut from bark. The men I had with
me from the village at St. Michael became so alarmed by their super-
stitious feelings that I was obliged to give up the idea of getting
further aid from them in this place. I learned afterward that this
village had been built by people from Pastolik, at the mouth of the
Yukon, who went there to fish and to hunt seals before the Russians
came to the country.
" On the highest point of Whale Island, which is a steep islet
just offshore near the present village of St. Michael, were the ruins
of a kashim and of sevei-al houses. The St. Michael people told me
that this place was destroyed, long before the Russians came, by a
war party from below the Yukon mouth. The sea has encroached
upon the islet until a portion of the land formerly occupied by the
village has been washed away. The permanently frozen soil at this
place stopped us at the depth of about 2 feet. Here, and at another
ancient Unalit village site which was examined superficially, we
found specimens of bone and ivory carvings which were very ancient,
as many of them crumbled to pieces on being exposed.
" Along the lower Yukon are many indications of villages de-
stroyed by war parties. According to the old men these parties
came from Askinuk and Kushunuk, near the Kuskokwim, as there
was almost constant warfare between the people of these two sec-
tions before the advent of the Russians.
" Both the fur traders and the Eskimo claim that there are a large
number of house sites on the left bank of the Yukon,^'* a few miles
below Ikogmut. This is the village that the Yukon Eskimo say had
35 kashims, and there are many tales relating to the period when it
was occupied. At the time of my Yukon trips this site was heavily
covered with snow, and I could not see it ; but it would undoubtedly
well repay thorough excavation during the summer months. One
of the traditions is that this village was built by people from Bristol
Bay, joined by others from Nunivak Island and Kushunuk. One
'^ This is the " villago of 32 kashims," which I mention in the Narrative and of which
I heanl independently (p. 71). The present Esicimo claim that it existed on the right
bank, about 12 miles below Uussian Mission (Ikogmut). My visit and subsequently that
of Mr. f'liris Betsch, the kind and interested trader at Russian Mission, the latter with
an old Eskimo, failed to definitely locate the site, but further efiforts are desirable.
hkdliOka] archeology OF WESTERN ESKIMO 171
informant said that a portion of tliis village was occnpied up to
1848, when the last inhabitant died of smallpox, but whether or not
this is true I was unable to learn.
"Another informant told me that near the entrance of Goodnews
Bay, near the mouth of the Kuskokwim, there is a circular pit about
75 feet in diameter, marking the former site of a very large kashim.
A few miles south of Shaktolik, near the head of Norton Sound, I
learned of the existence of a large village site. Both the Eskimo
and the fur traders who told me of this said that the houses had been
those of Shaktolik people, and that some of them must have been
connected by underground passageways, judging from the ditchlike
dej^ressions from one to the other along the surface of the ground.
The Shaktolik men who told me this said that there were many other
old village sites about there and that they were once inhabited by a
race of very small people who have all disappeared.
" From the Malemut of Kotzebue Sound and adjacent region I
learned that there are many old village sites in that district. Many
of these places were destroyed by war parties of Tinne from the
interior, according to the traditions of the present inhabitants.
" On Elephant Point, at the head of the Kotzebue Sound, I saw
the site of an old village, with about 15 pits marldng the locations
of the houses. The pits sloped toward the center and showed by their
outlines that the houses had been small and roughly cii'cular, with a
short passageway leading into them, the entire structure having been
partly underground.
"The Eskimo of East Cape, Siberia, said that there were many
old village sites along the coast in that vicinity. These houses had
stone foundations, many of which are still in place. There is a large
ruined village of this kind near the one still occupied on the cape.
" On the extreme point of Cape Wankarem, and at its greatest
elevation, just above the present camp of the Reindeer Chukchi, a
series of three sites of old Eskimo villages were found."
To this, on pages 269 et seq.. Nelson adds an account of the villages
that " died " on St. Lawrence Island during the winter of 187&-80.
Capt. C. L. Hooiier. in the "Cruise of the Corwin in 1881, Notes
and Observations " (published in Washington, 1884, p. 100) gives the
date as 1878-79, and adds further details about these villages.
Present Location of Aecheologioal Sites
Through personal visits, wherever possible, and through informa-
tion from all available sources, an effort was made to locate and
learn the character of as many of the old sites as could be traced. In
this endeavor I was aided by many whose services are hereby grate-
fully acknowledged. Especial thanks are due to Captain Cochran
172 ANTHROPOLOGICAIi SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ann. 46
with the officers and men of the Bear^ particularly Boatswain H.
Berg; to the Lome.n brothers and their esteemed father, at Nome;
to Father B. La Fortune and the Reverend Baldwin at Nome; to
Mr. Sylvester Chance, superintendent of the northwestern district,
Bureau of Education; to Mr. Charles D. Brower, trader at Barrow;
to Mr. Jim Allen, trader at Wainwright; and to Dr. E. P. Walker,
head of the Biological Survey of Alaska. The list to follow, supple-
mented by maps, will give in brief the name, location, and description
of the remains.
The old sites occur, (1) in the form of refuse heaps; (2) as late
village sites, smaller or larger areas of ground covered with mostly
circular elevations and depressions, with occasionally the wooden re-
mains of igloos or kashims, or only partly ruined dwellings; such
remains are the most common; (3) as old village sites in the form of
a long irregular ridge mound or of more or less separate heaps;
(4) as heaps or " mounds " of individual structures. And as
" passed " sites, covered completely by sand or silt and unknown until
uncovered through the washing away by the sea or rivers of some of
the deposits.
In addition there are the remains of burial grounds which are
occasionally marked by small low mounds or hummocks produced by
decayed burials that have been more or less assimilated by the tundra.
Stony beaches with chips, implements, etc., such as are found off old
sites on the Yukon, have not been seen in the region now dealt with
in any instance.
The ruined dwellings and communal houses throughout this region,
with a few minor exceptions, were of one general type. They were
circular, yurta-shaped, semisubterranean structures, with a more or
less subterranean tunnel approach, built of hewn driftwood and
earth. These dwellings, when the wood decays and the dome falls
in, leave characteristic saucer-and-handle-like depressions. But
where such dwellings were close, and especiifilly where they were
heaped up or superimposed on older ones, the remains, together with
the refuse, may form an irregular elevated ridge or a large irregular
mound.
On the Diomede Islands the dwellings are built of stone, and ruins
of stone houses have been reported to me from inland of the western-
most parts of the Seward Peninsula. Stone dwellings wei'e also
known on Norton Sound.
Some of the ridges and heaps, as at Shislmiaref , Point Hojse, one
of the Punidj Islands, etc., are large and may be up to 15 feet and over
in depth, but mostly the remains are of moderate to small size. The
latter sometimes could easily be confounded with natural formations.
The older remains may supei'ficially be indistinguishable even to an
HBDLieKA] AECHEOLOGY OF WESTERN ESKIMO 173
experienced observer; and if there is anything still more ancient, it
lies somewhere in the old sands and beaches where, except through
some fortunate accident, it can not be discovered. Except for their
surface, the remains are generally frozen hard, and no excavation is
possible except through gradual exposure and the melting of layer
after layer by the warmth of the sun or a melting of the ground
with water or by some other artificial means.
Some at least of these ruins are rich archeologically. They greatly
exceed in this respect a large majority of village ruins and mounds
in the interior of the continent. This apjiears from their gradual
excavation by the natives at Barrow, Point Hope, St. Lawrence
Island, and elsewhere. The natives have now for many yeai-s been
selling thousands of articles thus obtained to traders, teachers, and
crews of visiting vessels. A regular and growing trade detrimental
to archeology is now being carried on in " fossil ivory," which gen-
erally consists of pieces showing human workmanship and occasion-
ally includes specimens of rare beauty and importance.
The archeological contents of such old sites as that near Savonga
on the St. Lawrence Island, or those at Wales, Point Hope, Barrow,
etc., are varied, and in instances exceedingly interesting. They com-
prise a large variety of objects of stone, ivory, bone, and wood, while
in the more superficial layers are also found occasionally glass beads
or objects of metal. Some ruins, such as those at Point Hope and
Kotzebue, are very rich in stone objects; others, as those at the St.
Lawrence Island, are rich in articles of ivory and bone. Pottery is
generally scarce. Articles of stone comprise mainly points, Iniives,
adzes, and lamps; those of wood, goggles and masks; of bone, various
parts of sleds, a large assortment of snow and meat picks, and scrap-
ers; of ivory, barbed points, harpoons, and lance heads, and a large
variety of tools, fetishes, and ceremonial objects; of clay, a few dishes
and pots for culinary purposes. Traces of objects made of whalebone
or even birch bark may also appear.
The stones used were mainly slate and flint, but there may also
be met with quartz, quartzite, and especially the Kobuk " jade."
The workmanship is as a rule good to excellent. Tlie arrow points
show a number of interesting, not yet fully known, types, the long
blade with parallel sides predominating. The stone lamps and rare
dishes also need further study. The knives all approach the Asiatic
semilunar variety.
The bones and wooden objects and the pottery from this region
are fairly well covered by the writings of Ray, Murdoch, Nelson,
Rau, Thomas, and others; the masks need further study.
The most interesting archeological specimens from the region of
the western Eskimo, however, are some of those in " fossil ivory,"
the term being applied to walrus ivory that through long lying in
174
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA
[ETH. ANN. 46
the ground has assumed more or less of a pearly yellow, variegated,
sepia-brown or black color. These objects are known as yet very
imperfectly. They are scarce at and especially north of Point Hope,
and again along the west coast south of Norton Sound. Their center
of frequency comprises seemingly the St. Lawrence Island, some
parts of the Asiatic coast, the Diomedes, and parts of the Seward
Peninsula. But they occur at least up to Point Hope, while west
of Bering Strait they are said to appear as far as the river Kolyma.
Some of the objects in fossilized ivory show the well-known Esltimo
art, with geometrical design. But besides these there occur here and
there beautiful specimens, har-
poon heads, figures, needle cases,
etc., which are of the finest work-
manship and which both in form
and design differ from the pre-
vailing Eskimo types. They are
examples of high aboriginal art;
and their engraved decorative
lines are not geometrical but
beautifully curvilinear. (Fig.
12.) The accompanying illustra-
tions of specimens I succeeded in
obtaining from different sources
will show the nature of this art.
(Pis. 19-26.) Isolated specimens
of this nature have been secured
before by Nelson, Neuman, Sver-
drup, Stefansson, and others.
Jenness in 1926 dug out a few
from the old sites at Wales.
There are several in the Museum
of the American Indian in New York. But the largest and best
collection of these remarkable articles is now that of the United
States National Museum.^'"'
The large fossil ivory figure (20.3 cm. maximum length, pi. 26)
collected by Mr. Carl Lomen and now in the National Museum is of
special interest. It comes from the Asiatic side. It is a handsomely
made piece, belonging in all probability to the high fossil ivory
culture. Its peculiarity is the bi-bevel face, a face made by two
planes rising to a median ridge. It is so far a unique specimen of
its kind. But with the aid of Mr. H. W. Krieger, curator^ of
ethnology. United States National Museum, we found similar bi-
i^" MacCurd.v described the first specimen of this liind in 1921 as "An Example of Eslcimo
Art," in Amer. Anthrop., vol. 23. No. 3. pp. 384-385. See also Collins (H. B.. jr.). Prehis-
toric Art of the Alaskan Eskimo, Smith. Misc. Coll., toI. 81, No. 14, 52 pp., Washington,
1929.
FiGCEB 12. — Conventionalized design from
fossil ivory specimen shown In Plate 19
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 19
Terminal Piece of a lance or harpoon. Northern Bering Sea
Black, high natural polish. Most beautiful piece o( the fossil ivory art. (A. H., 1926, U.S.N.M.)
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 20
FOSSIL IVORY SPECIMENS SHOWING THE OLD CURVILINEAR DESIGNS.
NORTHERN BERING SEA
(A. U. coll., 1926, U.S.N.M.)
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 21
OBJECTS Showing the old fossil ivory art. northern
BERING SEA
(U.S.N.M., Nos. 1 and 3, coU. A. H., 1926.)
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BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 23
a, Small, finely made objects in fossU ivory and stone (the head), from the ruins at Point Hope
(A. H. coll., 1926.)
b, Old fussU ivory objects, northern Bering Sea. The article lo the right is almost classic in form;
it is decorated on both sides. (A. H. coll., 1926, U. S.N.M.)
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BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 26
Old Black Finely Carved Fossil ivory Figure, from the North-
eastern ASIATIC COAST
(Loan to U.S.N.M. by Mr. Carl Lomen.)
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 28
Top; Manche de poignard en ivoire, avec sculpture repr^sentant un renne. Montastiuc {Peccadeau
de risle; in de Quatrefages (A.), Homnies fossUes, Paris, 1884, p. 50)
Left: Two beautiful knives of fossil mammoth ivory latelv made by a Seward Peninsula Eskimo.
(Gift to the U.S.N. ^L by A. H., 1926.)
Right; Two old ceremonial Mexican obsidian knives.
HKDLicKA] ARCHEOLOGY OF WESTEEN ESKIMO 175
beveled faces in wooden figures from northeast Asia, in wooden
Eslcimo masks from the Yukon, and in wooden ceremonial figures
from Panama. The latter are shown herewith. (PI. 27.) The
whole presents evidently a nice problem for the archeologist and
student of culture.
I had further the good fortune to secure, through the kindness of
Reverend Baldwin, two handsome and remarkable knives from
fossil mammoth ivory. Tliese knives were said to have been made
recently by the Eskimo of the Seward Peninsula. They are shown in
Plate 28. They each bear on the handle a nicely carved crouching
animal figure. With them are shown, somewhat more reduced, two
probably ceremonial knives from Old Mexico; and also the handle
of a late palaeolithic poignard from France, illustrated by De
Quatrefages.^'^ Regarding the latter form we read the following in
Mortillet : ^' " D'autres poignees de poignard, faites dans des donnees
pratiques et artistiques analogues, ont ete recueillies dans diverses
collections. Les j^lus remarquables sont deux poignees en ivoire
trouvees i^ar Peccadeau de I'Isle, a Bruniquel. L'une se rattachait a
la lame, comme dans la piece precedente, i^ar le train de derriere;
I'autre, au contraire, jjar la tete." Knives with similar crouching
animal figures on the handle are being made by the ICing Islanders.
Here, evidently, is one more interesting problem for the archeolo-
gists.
Tlie art shown by these objects, the conventionalization, and
especially the decorations, apj^ear to show affinity on one hand to
deeper eastern Asia and on the other to those of tlie American north-
west coast and even lower. This may prove to mean much or little.
The fact that these specimens establish beyond question is that at one
time and up to a few hundreds of years ago there existed in the lands
of the northern Bering Sea native art superior to that existing
there later and at the present, and comparable with the best native
Siberian or American.
The meaning of this fact seems to me to be of importance. The
evidence suggests, aside from other things, that Americon cultural
developments may after all not have been purely local or even
American, but that they may, in part at least, have been initiated or
carried from Asia. In view of these and other recent developments
it seems rational to consider that America may have been peopled
by far eastern Asiatic groups that not merely carried with them
differences in language and physique but also in some cas'-s i datively
high cultural developments. But these for the present are mere
hypotheses.
M Quatrcfages, A. de., Hommes fossiles et liommes sauvages. Paris, 1884.
" Martinet, G. de., Le pr^historique engine et antiquity de rhomme. Paris. 1900,
20&-207.
176 ANTHROPOLOGICAL, SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ann. 46
There is no definite indication as yet that the people of the high
fossil ivory art in the northern Bering Sea and neighlxiring parts
were any others than the ancestors of the Eskimo. The skeletal re-
mains from these regions, as will be shown later, rather support
this view. But those ancestors may not yet have represented the
characteristic present type of the peoj^Ie. Here, too, nothing definite
can be said before the results of sufficient scientific excavations
become available.
Sites and Villages
The location of the western Eskimo villages has received more or
less attention by most of the explorers in their region from the
Russian time onward ; but sucii eiforts are generally limited to the
living villages in the area visited by the observers.
Perhaps the earliest Russian map of value in this connection on
the Bering Sea region is that which I find in Billings and (Jail's
Voyage or " Puteshestvie " of 1791, printed in St. Petersburg 1811.
The map bears no date, but is evidently quite early. It gives three
villages on the western jjoint and north coast of the Seward Penin-
sula, namely Kiemile (later Nykhta, now Wales), Chegliukh, and
Tykiak. (PI. 29.)
The most notable and valuable of the Russian contributions to this
subject is that of Zagoskin. This refers to the period of 1812-1844
and is contained partly in his " Peshechodnaia Opis," etc. (St.
Petersburg. 1847), but especially on his maps. There are, I find,
two of these maps — the " Merkatorskaia Karta Casti Sieverozapad-
nago Berega Ameriky " and the " Merkatorskaia Generalnaia Karta
Casti Rossijskich Vladenii v Amerike." I came across the first in
one copy of Zagoskin's invaluable account, which should long ago
have been translated into English, and the other in another copy.
Part of the second is here reproduced. (PI. 30.) Both bear the
statement that they were made by Zagoskin as the result of his ex-
plorations on the Yukon in 1842-1844. The second (" general ") map
is much the clearer and richer. Both maps, but especially the second,
give a good number of villages, especially about Norton Sound and
along the southern shore of Seward Peninsula. The orthography
differs somewhat on the two charts.
The Tebenkof Atlas of 1849 includes a remarkably good map of the
St. Lawrence Island. As on other Russian maps it gives the Punuk
Islands, that later are lost by most map makers, and indicates the
location of what probably were all the living settlements of that
time, except on the Punuk. (Fig. 27.)
Finally, in 1861, Tikhmenief, in his " Istoriceskoie Obozrenie "
(history of Russian America) gives a detailed maja with many loca-
tions of Eskimo villages.
erdliCka]
AECHEOLOGY OF WESTERN ESKIMO
177
The Aleutian Islands and Kodiak are excellently dealt with by
Veniaminof and also Tikhmenief, though little special attention is
given to the location of the settlements.
None of the Russian exi3lorei-s, regi'ettably, report verbally on the
deserted sites or ruins. But their registration and location of many
villages that have since become " dead " is of much historical as
well as anthropological value.
Of later and particularly American authors who gave attention to
the location of the western Eskimo settlements, the foremost is E. W.
Nelson. Beginning in 1877 with the St. Michael Island and ending
with the cruise of the C'orwln in 1881, Nelson made trips down the
coast to the Kuskokwim, up the Yvikon to Anvik, over the Bering
Sea, the St. Lawrence Island and parts of the Chukchee Peninsula,
FiGCKE 13. — World map
and finally, with the Corwin, along the northern coasts to Point Bar-
row. And these journeys were devoted largely to biological and
ethnological observations and collections, the latter including the
location of the western Eskimo habitations of that time. His loca-
tions are given on the accompanying map (fig. 15) taken from his
classic memoir, " The Eskimo about Bering Strait," published in 1900
in the Eighteenth Annual Report of tlie Bureau of American Ethnol-
ogy. This memoir contains a section of "Ruins" (pp. 263-266), a
brief account of the recently dead villages on St. Lawrence Island
(p. 269), and an instructive section on Eskimo burials (pp. 310-322).
Nelson brought also the first more substantial collection of Eskimo
crania.
The next deserving man in these connections is Ivan Petrof. Of
Russian-American extraction, Petrof was charged in 1880 with the
178
ANTHBOPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA
[ETH. ANN. 48
census enumeration of the natives in Alaska, and he later published ^*
a valuable report on his work, together with detailed demogi-aphic
data and a map on which are given all the living settlements of his
time. Nelson's map is partly based on Petrof 's data.
Since Nelson and Petrof but little has been done in this field.
But the maps of these two observers have been utilized more or less
by the map makers of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey,
the Geological Survey, and other Government agencies concerned
with Alaska. The result is that some of these charts are exception-
ally useful to the anthropological explorer in Alaska; neverthe-
less the data they carry are incomplete and the locations or names
R\ xj T/NA/eH MOS.
^^AVA'Wr TRIBES
f,^ I \ALruTS
^ — zX'JSrA CHOHCHIS
\ ^A,-^CRICA TimaiTS
^^1 NAIDA "A Ky&AHS/
V. ■■ v-rt^ ■
FiGUBB 14. — Ball's map of the distribution of the tribes of Alaska and adjoining
teiTitory, 1875
are not always exact, a good many of the villages shown are now
dead, and old ruins, as usual, have received no attention.
A very valuable supplement to all the maps has in 1902 been
published by the United States Geological Survey. It is the
Geograjihic Dictionary of Alaska, by Marcus Baker. This
volume, besides brief but serviceable historical data, gives in
alphabetical order nearly all the then-known names of localities in
Alaska, including those of the Eskimo and Indian settlements; and
each name is accompanied by brief but in many instances most
helpful information. This highly deserving volume, indispensable
=« Tenth Census, viii ; rcprintod in Compilation of Narratives of Explorations in Alaslsa.
U. S. Senate Kept. 1023, WasUington, 1900, 50-281.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 29
Xa 31; E -P 13 .. K
■ ^nr u^ert^f
Billings and Galls Map of Bering strait and Neighboring Lands.
1811
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 30
II I .Uni-riivin
ESKIMO VILLAGES AND SITES. NORTON SOUND AND BAY AND SEWARD
PENINSULA. AND THE KOTZEBUE SOUND. FROM ZAGOSKIN'S GENERAL MAP.
1847
hkdliCka]
ARCHEOLOGY OF WESTERN ESKIMO
179
to every student of Alaska, has for many years been out of print,
but it is understood that a new revised edition is slowly being
prepared.
LE&END
I I MB
,5-J/f/A70 YU/T CHUKCHI ATff/tPASOIIV
SCALE OF MILES
o ^z, ao lao tbo
FiGCKE 15. — Xilsou's map. (Eighteenth Ann. Kept. Bur, Amer. Ethn., 189S)
Otlaer useful publications in these connections are the United
States Coast Pilots of Alaska, the various accounts of travelers, ex-
plorers, and men in collateral branches of science (geology, biology.
180
ANTHEOPOLOGICAL, SURVEY IN ALASKA
[ETH. ANN. 4«
etc.), the publications of the Alaska Division of the United States
Department of Education, the annual reports of the Governor of
Alaska, and the decennial reports on Alaska of the United States
Census.
Z77777?i
ESKIMAUAN ATHAPASCAN ALEUT TLlNfalT
Figure 1G. — Linguistic map, United States census, 1920
The object of the following notes and data is some measure of
usefulness to future anthropological and archeological workers in
Alaska. They are surely incomplete and very imperfect, yet they
may be of some service.
HUDLICKA] AKCHEOLOGY OF WESTERN ESKIMO 181
Archeological and anthropological research in the highly impor-
tant western Eskimo region is bound to develop in a not far distant
future; for this is the region through which in all probability
America was peopled. It is this region that promises to solve flie
problem of the antiquity of the Eskimo and may throw much light
upon the origin of these people, and one that, as shown above, has
begun to reveal highly interesting old cultural conditions. And it
is a region in whicli destruction of the remains by nature, but most
so recently by the natives themselves, proceeds at an alarming i^ace.
The information on which these notes and the accompanying
charts are based has been obtained largely from the Russian and
other maps, from local traders, teachers, missionaries, and natives,
and from a few exi^lorers.^^ Only in a minority of cases was it
possible to visit the places in person ; to have visited all would have
been a task of pleasure, but would have required a staunch boat of
my own and at least three full seasons.
Many of the sites to be given are now " dead " and there may be
several old sites in the vicinity of a living village. Others combine
ruins with present habitations. Still others are partly or even wholly
abandoned a part of the year when the inhabitants go camping or
hunting, and are partly or wholly occupied during the rest of the
year. Finally, there are some new settlements, with modern dwell-
ings and ways, and their number will increase, the Eskimo taking
kindly to civilization and individual property.
The data to be given here are limited to the Eskimo territory
in southwestern and western Alaska, leaving out those in Silieria
where much is uncertain. Due to the uncertainties of the Prince
William Sound region they will begin with Kodiak Island. There
are also on hand, principally due to Dr. E. P. Walker, numerous
locations of old sites and villages in the Indian parts of southern
and southeastern Alaska, but these will best be reserved for another
occasion.
The Eskimo area will be roughly seen from the accompanying map
published on the basis of the enumeration by the Fourteenth United
States Census of 1920. A very great part of the territory allotted
to the Eskimo, as well as that of the Indian, is barren of any popu-
" I am especi.illy indebted to the two maps of Zagoskin (one prepared by himself, one
from his data) ; to the 1840 Russian map of the St. Lawrence Island : to the various maps
of the U. S. Geolotrical Survey and the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey : to the maps and
data of W. H. Dall, E. W. Nelson, and Ivan Petrof ; to the various reports of the Concin
and other voyages in the Bering Sea and the western Arctic ; to the Geographic Dictionary
of Alaska, by Marcus Baker, and to the V. S. Coast Pilots of Alaska ; to the data of the
Alaska Division, U. S. Department of Education ; to Dr. E. P. Walker, of the Biological
Survey : to Father La Fortune, the Reverend Baldwin, and to Mr. Carl J. Lomen at Nome :
to Mr. Sylvi'sfiT Chance, superintendent in 1026 of the schools of the Kotzebue district :
to Messrs. James Allen at Wainwright and Charles Brower at Barrow ; and to numerous
other friends who aided me in this direction.
182 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ANN. 46
lation or its traces; the divisions represent the hunting grounds or
grounds claimed by each people, not an occupied territory. The data
will be given in south-to-north order.
Nearly all the settlements in these regions are now, and have
evidently always been, on the shores of the seas and bays, as close
to the water as safety would permit. A few villages and sites occur
also, however, on inland lakes and rivers. The favored locations
have been an elevated flat near the mouth of a fresh-water stream
or the outlet of a lagoon, a sufficiently elevated spit projecting into
the sea, or an elevated bar between the sea and an inland lake. The
essentials were an elevated flat, a supply of fresh drinking water,
and a location favorable for fishing and hunting; if there was some
natural protection, so much the better. There were no inland settle-
ments except on the lakes and rivers. In a few cases, as at the
Kings and the Little Diomede Islands, very difficult locations were
occupied only because outweighed by other advantages.
Caves throughout the occupied region north of the Aleutian chain
are absent, and there was therefore no cave habitation.
None of the settlements were very large, though a few were much
larger than others. They ranged from one or two family camps
or houses to villages of some hundreds of inhabitants. A large ma-
jority of the settlements had from but two or three to approximately
a dozen families.
There were two main types of dwellings, the semisubterranean
sod houses for the winter and the skin tents for summer. In some
jDlaces the two were near each other ; in others the summer dwellings
were in another and at times fairly distant locality.
The "zimniki" (in Russian) or winter houses were throughout
the region of one general type. They were fair-sized circular semi-
subterranean houses, made of driftwood and earth, and provided
with a semisubterranean entrance vestibule. Their i-emains are char-
acterized everywhere by a circular pit with a short straight trench
depression, the same pot-and-handle type as found along the Yukon.
Rarely for the construction of the houses, where driftwood did
not suffice, recourse was had to whale ribs and mandibles. The
" letniki," or summer houses, were constructed on the surface of
wood, sod and skins, or of whale ribs and skins, approaching on one
hand the summer huts of various continental tribes and on the other
the " yurts " of the north Asiatic peoples. The " kashims," or com-
munal houses, were built, much as on the Yukon, like the family
dwellings, but occasionally quadrilateral and nmch larger. Smaller
semisubterranean storage houses of driftwood and sod near the
winter dwellings were seemingly general.
Ruins of stone dwellings, without mortar, are said to exist in
places on Norton Sound and Bay and on a lagoon near the western
unDLicKA] ARCHEOLOGY OF WESTERN ESKIMO 183
end of the Seward Peninsula. The few houses on the Little Diomede
are made of loose unhewn stone slabs. The dwellings of the King
Islanders are built on the rocky slope of the island on platforms sup-
ported by jDoIes, all of driftwood.
There is as a rule an absence of separate refuse heaps near the
villages. The refuse apparently has been dumped about and be-
tween the houses rather than on separate piles.
Dead villages abound. On consulting the older Kussian records,
however, it is seen that nearly all were still " living " as late as the
early forties of the last century. Yet there are sites that were
" dead " already when the Russians came, and the accumulations in
other cases denotes a long occupation.
The site of a dead village, in summer, is generally marked by
richer and greener vegetation; same as on the Yukon. The site
itself is usually pitted or humped in a line forming a more or less
elevated ridge, or the pits may be disseminated without apparently
much order. An^ there may be irregular moundlike heaxjs without
external traces of any structure.
In the older sites no trace of wood is visible ; in the later rotten
posts, crosspieces, parts of the covering of the house or tunnel, or even
a whole habitation may be present. In the old sites the wood is
hewn with stone axes ; in the later it is sawed, and there may be nails.
Older accumulations lie occasionally beneath more recent ones,
though no interruption of continuity may be traceable. Of a super-
position of villages no trace was observable.
Btxrial Grounds
Due to the impossibility of digging sufficiently deep into the frozen
ground the western Eskimo buried their dead neAr or on the surface
or among rocks. Occasionally they utilized also, it seems, old dwell-
ings for this jnu-pose, and in more recent times at least the surface
burials, wherever there was driftwood, would be protected by heavy
rough-hewn planks put together in the form of boxes or by drift-
wood. They bear close fundamental resemblance to those of the
Yukon. On the Nunivak Island occur graves made of rough stone
slabs piled up without much order. (PI. 31, «., b.)
Throughout the region the burials were located near the village,
but the distance varied according to local conditions and habits. In
some of the Eskimo villages of the lower Yukon, as at Old Hamil-
ton, some burials were close to the houses of the living. In the Bering
and Arctic regions the burial grounds, though sometimes of necessity
not far from the houses, as at the Little Diomede, in other places,
as at Point Hope and Barrow, were at a distance extending to beyond
a mile and a half from the village.
184 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. a.-^s. 4o
As a rule the wood of burials older than about 80 years was found
fully decayed with the bones secondarily buried. Of earlier burials
there is generally no trace on the surface, but on excavation skeletal
remains are found at various depths below the surface. These char-
acteristic self-burials, or rather tundra burials, may j^rove of much
importance to anthropology in the future. As outlined before (see
Narrative, pp. 77, 79) the process is a decay of the wood ; the sagging
down of the bones, covered more or less by the decayed material; an
encroachment of moss or other vegetation on the little mound thus
produced ; and gradual accumulation through wind or water carried
materials of more covering over the bones, imtil the mound disap-
pears and the remains, generally still in good condition, are buried
as if intentionally inhumed.
The Eskimo everywhere were found to be exceedingly sensible
about the older, and even recent, skeletal remains, and assisted readily
in their collection, as well as in excavation, offering thus the best
possible conditions for anthropological and arct^ieological work in
these regions.
The notes, charts, and a detailed list of the sites and villages fol-
low. In numerous cases it was found impossible to say whether a
site was completely " dead " or still occasionally partly occupied, so
that distinctive markings had to be abandoned.
Prince William Sound, Kodiak Island, Alaska Peninsula
Very largely still a terra incognita for anthropology and arche-
ology. Partly occupied by Indians (Prince William Sound, Kodiak
Island?), partly by mix-blood Aleut (parts of Peninsula, and of
Kodiak), partly by Eskimo. There is but little skeletal or arche-
ological material from the whole extensive territory.
kodiak island and neighborhood
[Fig. 17]
1. Litnik (probably the Russian "Lietnik," the name for a .sum-
mer village). — Indian village on Afognak Bay, Afognak Island.
This name is foimd on a map made by the Fish Commission in 1889.
Apparently it is the Afognak of other maps (G. D. A.).**"
2. Afoffnak. — On the southwestern part of Afognak Island. Vil-
lage or row of scattered dwellings on shore of Afognak Bay, in
southwestern part of Afognak Island. Population in 1890, 409.
(G. D. A.) According to Walker, "an important, occupied native
*° G. D. X. : Geographic Dictionary of Alaska, by Marcus Baker, L'. S. Geol. Surr., Wash-
ington, 1902.
IIEDLlC'KA]
ARCHEOLOGY OF WESTEEN ESKIMO
185
village which has probably been occupied for a long time. No doubt
there are other native villages in this immediate vicinity."
3. Spruce Island. — Ouzinkie, or Uzinki; an occupied native vil-
lage and cannery. (E. P. W.)."
Figure 17. — Villages and sites on Kodialt Island
4. Eagle Harbour or Ugak Bay. — Possibly the native village
" Orlova " of the Russians. (G. D. A.)
5. Kiliuda. — Native village, on the north shore of Kiliuda Bay,
Kodiak. Has been generally written Kiliuda. (G. D. A.)
« E. p. W. : Dr. E. P. Wallser.
88253°— 30 13
186 ANTHEOPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ann. 40
6. Nvrnxmniut. — Native village, on the shore of Three Saints Har-
bor, Kodiak. (G. D. A.) Better known locally as Three Saints
Bay. There was formerly an old native and Russian settlement at
this point and vicinity, and fishing operations are frequently now
conducted here. (E. P. W.)
7. Kaguyah. — Village, at Kaguyak Bay, on the southwestern shore
of Kodiak. It may be identical with the Kaniag-miut of the Rus-
sian-American Co., in 1849. (G. D. A.) An old native village at
present occupied by only one or two families. Possibly an old
site. (E. P. W.)
8. AiaktaJik. — Village on one of the goose islands, near Kodiak.
Population in 1890, 106. (G. D. A.) An occupied native village
consisting of about a dozen houses, but which has probably been
occupied for a long time. (E. P. W.)
9. Akhiok. — Native village on the northern shore of Alitak Bay,
Kodiak. Native name from Petrof, 1880. Apparently identical
with Oohaiack of Lisianski in 1805. (G. D. A.) An occupied native
village consisting of about a couple of dozen houses. This or pos-
sibly other villages in the vicinity have undoubtedly been occupied
for a long time. It is possible that there was a native settlement at
Lazy Bay near this point, for Lazy Bay was formerly a native head-
quarters for sea otter hunting. (E. P. W.)
10. Karluk. — Village at mouth of Karluk River, Kodiak. Native
name from the Russians. (G. D. A.)
11. ZJyak. — Bay indenting the northwestern coast of Kodiak; also
a village. Native name from the Russians. Lisianski, 1805, spells it
Oohiack and the village Ooiatsk. Petrof, 1880, writes it Ooiak. Has
also been written IJiak. (G. D. A.)
12. Larsen Bay. — A cannery has been located at this point for a
number of years, and there is an old native trail from Larsen Bay
to Karluk River, so presumably natives have frequented this section
and no doubt have at some time had settlements there. Definite
information regarding this is not available. (E. P. W.)
13. Ugamik. — Native village at head of Uganik Bay. Shown by
Lisianski, 1805, who spells it Oohanick. (G. D. A.) An occupied
native village and one which has apparently been in use for a con-
siderable period. (E. P. W.)
ALASKA PENINSULA
[Figs. 18, 19]
Native settlements or old villages at one or more points in Kam-
ishak Bay, Ursus Cove, or Iliamna Bay are reported, but there is
nothing definite on the subject. (E. P. W.)
HIiDLlCKA]
AECHEOLOGY OF WESTERN ESKIMO
187
14. U'tmnna. — An occupied native village, and undoubtedly there
are various village sites on Iliamna Lake regarding which informa-
tion could be obtained from parties in Iliamna. (E. P. W.)
15. Ashivak. — Native village (population 46 in 1880), near Cape
Douglas, Cook Inlet. Native name reported by Petrof in 1880.
(G. D. A.)
16. Kayayak. — Village, on Svikshak Bay, Shelikof Strait, about
25 miles southwest of Cape Douglas. Tebenkof, 1849, has Kaiaiak
Figure 18. — Villages and sites on tbe proximal half of Alaslia Peninsula
settlement, which has on many charts appeared as Kayayak.
(G. D. A.)
17. Kukak. — Native village, on Kukak Bay. Lutke, 1835, has
Koukak Bay and village. (G. D. A.)
18. Katviai. — Village, on Katmai Bay, Shelikof Strait, northwest
of Kodiak. This is one of the most important of the native villages.
Population in 1880, 218; in 1890, 132. (G. D. A.) A native village
which was occupied up to the time of the Katmai eruption but was
abandoned at that time. (E. P. W.)
188
ANTHROPOLOGICAL, SURVEY IjST ALASKA
[ETH. ANN. 40
19. Cold 5a?/.— Small village.
20. Kanatak. — A native village consisting of about half a dozen
houses until in 1922, when oil activity in the vicinity caused a small
vdiite settlement to locate at this point. This, however, has since
been almost entirely abandoned by whites. (E. P. W.)
21. Kuiukuk. — Small village.
22. Chignik. — Fishing station on Chignik Bay, Alaska Peninsula.
Population in 1890, 193. (G. D. A.) There are three canneries in
this immediate vicinity, a number of natives, and undoubtedly some
native villages and probably old village sites. (E. P. W.)
Figure 10. — Villages and .sites on the distal half of Alaska Peninsula
23. Kaluiak. — Native village, on the southern shore of Chignik
Bay, Alaska Peninsula. So given by Petrof in 1880 and the Fish
Commission in 1888. (G. D. A.)
24. Mitrofania. — An old native village which has recently been
abandoned or practically abandoned ; was apparently a rather im-
portant village at one time. (E. P. W.)
25. Peri^viUe. — A recently established native village consisting of
natives from various points along the Alaska. Peninsula who were
moved there primarily by the Bureau of Education since the Katmai
eruption. (E. P. W.)
26. Kujulik. — Walker has been informed that there is an old vil-
lage site of that name either in this bay or on Kumlik.
BHDLirKA] AECHEOLOGY OF WESTERN ESKIMO 189
27. Old village mentioned on this island; uncertain.
28. Wo,m>ese>iski. — An old village site on this island reported.
(E. P. W.)
29. Pat'Iof.—Rev. D. Hotvoitzky. of Belkofski, informed Walker
that there is a very old abandoned village site at the head of this bay.
30. Belhofshi. — Bay, cajse. and village on south coast of Alaska
Peninsula. Named by the Russians as early as 1835 and probably
earlier. (G. D. A.) The most important occupied native village on
the Alaska Peninsula. Quite an old village and a former head-
quarters for sea-otter hunting. (E. P. W.)
31. 32. Morzhovol. — Nftive village at western end of Alaska
Peninsula. Named Morzhovoi (Wah-us) by the Russians. Variously
spelled. There are or were two villages, one called Old Morzhovoi,
the other New Morzhovoi, being about 12 miles apart. Old Mor-
zhovoi was at the head of Morzhovoi Bay; New Morzhovoi is on
Traders Cove, which opens into Isanotski Strait. The Greek church
here is named Protassof, and Petrof, 1880, called the settlement
Protassof. (G. D. A.) An occupied native village. The natives
from this village also live during the canning season at the cannery
in False Pass directly across the strait from Morzhovoi and at Ika-
tan a short way to the south. (E. P. W.)
33. Herendeen. — Walker has been informed that there are some
shell mounds or kitchen middens about this bay. Walter G. Culver,
formerly an employee of the Bureau of Education, but who is at
present in Anchorage in care of the Alaska Railway, can give infor-
mation regarding this and can also give information regarding most
of the other native villages along the Alaska Peninsula. (E. P. W.)
34. Port MolJcr. — Eskimo site somewhere in this vicinity; name
and exact location uncertain.
35. Unanffashik. — A native village, or portage, near Port Heiden.
36. Meshilc. — A village on Port Heiden.
37. Ugashik. — A native village on the Ugashik River. Reported
by Petrof, 1880.
38. Igagik {or Egegik). — A ^yllage at the mouth of the Egegik
River.
39. Kiniak {or Naknak, or Swvorof). — A village (of "Aleuts,"
Sarichef ) at mouth of Naknak River, Bristol Bay, south side.
40. Pawik {or Pakwik). — Eskimo village, at mouth of Naknak
River, Bristol Bay, north side.
41. Kogmnk. — Eskimo village at mouth of Kvichak River, Bristol
Bay. Native name, reported in 1880 bv Petrof, who spelled it Kog-
giung. (G. D. A.)
42. Lockaiiok. — Small village.
43. Kaslianak. — Small old village.
190 ANTHROPOLOGICAL. SURVEY IN ALASKA [bth. ann. 46
44. Kvichak. — Old Eskimo village on river of same name between
Kvichak Bay and Iliamna Lake.
Bristol Bay to Cape Romanzof
From the northern part of Bristol Bay to Cape Romanzof a
partial survey of the coast was made in 1927 by Collins and Stewart
(U. S. National Museum Expedition). In these regions and on
the Nunivak Island it was possible to locate a series of villages
some of which are still '" living," others in ruins. In the late
seventies of the last century, as stated before, the coast between
Kuskokwim Bay and St. Michael Island was visited and its villages
recorded by Nelson. A detailed archeological survey of this coast
remains for the future. Doctor Romig, formerly a medical mis-
sionary at Bethel, told me of a number of old sites on the river.
Some notes of interest by T. D. Stewart are given in the details.
Mr. F. W. Bundy, for a time my companion on the Bear, told of
an old site on the Kuskokwim. In March, 1927, H. W. Averill,
writing from Bethel, tells of a deep-lying old site on the southern
coast of the Kuskokwim Bay. (See details.) And later the same
year Father Philip I. Delon, of the Holy Cross Mission, sent in
three skulls from Kashunuk, in the Yukon delta, with information
of much additional material in that locality.
45. Nv^hagak. — Old Russian post, "Alexandrovsk." Eskimo vil-
lage, a few whites; a number of old native sites scattered about
head of Nushagak Bay.
46. Ekuk. — Eskimo settlement near the mouth of Nushagak River.
Name from Lutke, 1928, who spelled it Ekouk. Has also been writ-
ten Yekuk. (G. D. A.)
46a. Reported site of Eskimo village.
47. UaJik. — Native village, on the western shore of Kulukak Bay,
Bristol Bay, Bering Sea. Given by Petrof, 1880, as Ooallikh and
by Spurr and Post as Oalligamut; i. e., Oallik people. (G. D. A.)
48. Togiak. — Old Eskimo settlement.
49. Ekilik. — Possibly the same as Togiakmute, reported in 1880
by Petrof. Eskimo village on the west bank of Togiak River,
about 10 miles from its mouth. Eskimo name obtained by Spurr
and Post, in 1898, who write it Ekiligamut; i. e., Ekilik people.
50. A small Eskimo village.
51. Mwntmk. — Eskimo village at head of Goodnews Bays, Ber-
ing Sea. Population in 1890, 162. Name from Petrof, 1880, who
spelled it Mumtrahamute. (G. D. A.) Visited 1927 by Collins
and Stewart ; collections.
52. Site of a village, at junction of Bessie Creek and Arolic
River.
HRDLIrKA]
ARCHEOLOGY OF WESTERN ESKIMO
191
63. Arolik. — A village. H. W. Averill of Bethel write.s me under
date of jVIarch 3, 1927, as follows : " I am sending you some old stone
pieces that came from the Aralic River, a tributary of the lower
Kuskokwim River, that were washed up by a bend in the river from
an old village that is now 6 feet underground."
Figure 20. — Eskimo villages and sites on Nushagak Bay to Kuskokwim Bay
54. KwlrMk. — Eskimo village on the eastern shore of Kuskokwim
Bay, at the mouth of the Kwinak or Kanektok River, Bering Sea.
So given by Sarichef, 1826, and Tebenkof, 1849. Petrof, 1880, writes
it Quinehahamute, or, omitting the termination mute, meaning peo-
ple, it would be Quene-a-ak. (G. D. A.)
55. Apokak. — Eskimo village on the eastern shore of Kuskokwim
Bay, at the mouth of Apoka River. According to Nelson, 1878-79,
192 ANTHROPOLOGICAL, SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ann.46
its native name is Apokagamute; i. e., Apokak people. In the
Eleventh Census, 1890, it is called Ahpokagamiut. (G. D. A.)
56. Eek. — Eskimo village at mouth of Eek River.
57. Akiah. — Eskimo village on the right bank of the Kuskokwim,
about 30 miles above Bethel. Petrof, 1880, wrote its name Ackiag-
mute; i. e., Akiak j^eople. Spurr and Post, 1898, write Akiagmut,
following Missionary J. H. Kilbuck. (G. D. A.) Reindeer camps
in vicinity.
58. Bethel. — White and Eskimo settlement and mission at or near
the old Eskimo village Mumtrelega.
59. Napaiskak. — Eskimo village on the left bank of the Kuskok-
wim, about 4 miles below Bethel. According to Nelson, 1878-79, its
native name is Napaskiagamute, and according to Missionary Kil-
buck, 1898, it is Napaiskagamut; i. e., Najiaiskak people.
60. Old sites. — Mr. Bundy, my comi^anion for a time on the Bear,
gives the following details : " Specimens found about 12 miles below
Bethel, Alaska, at the mouth of the Kuskokwim River, beneath
about 10 or 12 feefc of alluvial soil deposits of sand and clay.
"Mr. Jack Heron, of Bethel, first noted the presence of old im-
lilements, and upon returning with him about August 1, 1923, we
found the river had cut into the bank quite a bit and had brought to
A'iew, after the high waters had receded, additional specimens.
" Those found included : A large copper kettle of perhaps 8 gal-
lons capacity of early Russian pattern, several arrowheads of slate
or dark gray flint, and two spearheads of bone with several broken
Imife blades of slate and one or two small ivory ornaments resembling
birds."
61. Napakiak. — Eskimo village on the right bank of the Kus-
kokwim, about 10 miles below Bethel. Nelson, 1878, reports the
native name as Napahaiagamute. (G. D. A.)
62. Klnak. — Eskimo village on right bank of the lower Kuskok-
wim. Visited by Nelson in January, 1879, who reported its native
name to be Kinagamiut; i. e., Kinak people. Its population was at
that time about 175. Population in 1880, 60; 1890, 257. (G. D. A.)
63. Village site (?).
64. Kus-lcovcck. — Eskimo village, on the right bank of the Kus-
kokwim River, near its mouth. Name from Nelson, who passed near
it in January. 1879, and who writes it Kuskovakh. (G. D. A.)
65. Popokak. — Native village.
66. Kulvagavik. — Eskimo village, on the western side of Kus-
kokwim Bay. Bering Sea. Visited by Nelson in January, 1879, and
its native name reported by him to be Koolvagavigamiut. (G.
D.A.)
hrdliCka]
AECHEOLOGY OF WESTERN ESKIMO
193
67. KongiffanaA\~^skimo village (of about 175 people in 1878)
on north shore of Kuskokwim Bay. Visited by Nelson in December,
1878. (G. D. A.)
68. Anogok. — E.skimo village, on the mainland shore just west of
Kuskokwim Bay, Bering Sea. Visited by Nelson in December, 1878.
(G. D. A.)
69. Choi it. —Eskimo village, of about 60 people in 1878, on left
bank of the Kuguklik River, northwest of Kuskokwim Bay. Visited
by Nelson in December, 1878. (G. D. A.)
FiGURB 21. — Eskimo villages and sites. Kuskokwim Bay to Scammon Bay
70. ChichiTiak. — Eskimo village on the mainland, east of Nunivak
Island, Bering Sea. Visited by Nelson in December, 1878.
(G. D. A.)
70a. Old village site.
71. Sfaganuk. — Eskimo village, on the mainland, east of Nunivak
Island, Bering Sea. Visited by Nelson in December, 1878
(G. D. A.)
72. Agiukchuk. — Eskimo village, on the mainland, east of Nuni-
vak Island, Bering Sea. Visited by Nelson in December. 1878.
(G.D.A.)
73. KasMgaluk. — Eskimo village, on Nelson Island, Bering Sea.
Visited by Nelson in December, 1878. (G. D. A.)
194 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA Ieth. ANN. 4C
74. KaJmkluk. — Eskimo village, on Nelson Island, near Cape Van-
couver, Bering Sea. Visited by Nejson in December, 1878.
(G. D. A.)
74a. Old village site.
75. Tamwnak. — Eskimo village, at Cape Vancouver, Nelson Island,
Bering Sea. Name from Nelson, who visited it in December, 1878.
Visited 1927 by Collins and Stewart; collections.
75a. Village site.
76. UkaJc. — Eskimo village, in the Yukon Delta, on shore of Hazen
Bay. Visited by Nelson in December, 1878, and its name reported
by him as Ookagamiut; i. e., Ulvak people. Petrof, 1880, calls it
Ookagamute. (G. D. A.)
77. Vnakak. — Eskimo village, in the Yukon Delta, near Hazen
Bay. Nelson, who visited it in December, 1878, reports its name
to be Oonakagamute; i. e., Unakak people. Petrof, 1880, calls it
Oonakagamute. (G. D. A.)
78. Kvigailuk. — Eskimo village, in the Big Lake country, between
the Yukon and Kuskokwim. Nelson in 1879 passed near it and re-
ports its name to be Kvigathlogamute. (G. D. A.)
79. Nurwchok. — Eskimo village, in the Big Lake region. Visited
by Nelson in January, 1879, who reports its native name to be
Nunochogmute ; i. e., Nunochok people.
80. Nanvogaloklak. — Eskimo village, in the Big Lake country.
Visited by Nelson in January, 1879. Population in 1880, 100; in
1890, 107. (G. D. A.)
81. Nash Earhor. — Living village, Nunivak Island; school; Col-
lins and Stewart, 1927, anthropometric data, collections (also from
other parts of island).
82. Koot. — ^Village, Nunivak Island, near Cape Etolin; partly oc-
cupied. Population in 1890, 117.
83. Inger. — (In Eleventh Census: Ingeramiut.) Dead village, in
southeast part of Nunivak Island. Population, 1890, 35.
84. Kvigak {or Kwik). — Dead village, southern part of Nunivak
Island.
85. Taohikuga. — ^Dead village, Nunivak Island, below Cape
Mohican.
86. Kashwimk. — Eskimo village; some collections; skeletal mate-
rial in vicinity reported 1927 by Father Del on, of the Holy Cross
Mission, Yukon.
87. AsMnuk. — Eskimo village on the southern shore of Hooper
Bay, Yukon Delta. Native name, from Nelson. Population 1878,
200. (G. D. A.)
87a. Village site.
88. Agia-k. — Eskimo village on promontory north of Hooper Bay.
88a. Village site.
HEBLifKA] AECHEOLOGY OF WESTERN ESFIMO 195
89. Igag. — Small village.
90. kut {Kutrmut). — Small village on Kut River, head of Scam-
mon Bay.
Cape Romanzof to Northern (Apoon) Pass of the Yukon and
Northward
On this coast there is little information since the time of Nelson.
There are a number of occupied villages as well as of old sites. The
region is bleak and the Eskimo there are reported to live miserably.
The principal Eskimo villages and sites along the lowermost
branch of the Yukon have been given previously. (Fig. 11.)
From the northernmost pass of the Yukon to St. Michael Island
the coast is poor in Eskimo remains. A site of interest here is the
old camj^ing ground, with a few permanent houses, of Fastolik, and
there are two small sites farther up the coast. Fastolik to the
writer's visit was still occasionally occupied by a few Eskimo fami-
lies. There are onlj' three houses, but a relatively large and old
cemetery speaks of a larger population, probably camping here in
tents during the summer seasons of the past. The burial grounds
were found to be rather extensive and give indications of containing
human bones as well as artifacts below the present surface (buried
by the tundra). The main part of the burial grounds may well
repay an excavation.
St. Michael Island. — Eskimo remains exist on the northeastern
point of the island beyond the present white man's village, and also
on the rock (Whale Island) opposite this point. During my visit
the ground was so overgrown by high weeds that details were
hidden. On this same northeastern point near the extension of the
white settlement is a small living Eskimo village, most of the in-
habitants of which are now of mixed blood. Across St. Michael
Bay are said to be some old traces of Eskimo, and Nelson reported
an old site in the southern part of the island. Finally at Cape
Stephens, in the western extremity of the island, there is " Stebbins,"
another living village. Nothing could be learned of any human
remains on the opposite Stuart Island.
Norton Sound. — North of St. Michael Island is Norton Sound
and Norton Bay. Along the east coast of the Sound there are three
villages still occupied, but with old accumulations. It is reported
that in this region there are some ruined houses in which mammoth
tusks had been used in the construction, but nothing definite could
be learned as to the location of these houses and the whole may be
but a story. The village of Unalaklik was of importance in the
past and its older remains would probably repay excavation. Old
196 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN^ ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 46
sites are reported from the vicinity of Shaldolik and at Cape
Denbigh.
The Norton Ba_y region (fig. 22), now almost depopulated, had in
1840 a whole series of moderate-sized living Eskimo settlements, both
on the east and the west shore. These shallows are but little visited,
and it is probable that the remains of the villages and some at least of
the skeletal material of their burying grounds are well preserved.
They call for early attention.
To the west of Norton Bay, on the southern coast of Seward
Peninsula, is Golovnin '- Bay. On the eastern shore of this bay
are now, as there were in Russian times, two settlements, but the
name of one has been misplaced. On Zagoskin's map it is clearly
seen that the village Ching or Chinig corresponds in location to
what now is the mission, while what is now called " Cheenik " was
in 1840 Ikalik or Ikalikhaig. There will soon be seen another
instance of such a misapplication of the original names.
To the west Golovnin Bay is bounded by a large promontory end-
ing in Rocky Point. To the east of this point is a shallow bay,
where I found a late Eskimo house and on the elevated shore a lit-
tle to the left four fairly recent adult burials. Farther down the bay
was an Eskimo camp, without signs of anything older; but Zagos-
kin's map gives a settlement, probably also a camp, at this place,
named Knikhtak. From this a rocky point projects eastward into
the bay. Behind this point is a shallow cove with elevated ground
above the beach, and at the inland end of this bay I found the re-
mains of a small old village. Traces of burials were seen on the ele-
vated ground but skeletal remains were absent.
On the southwestern shore of the promontory that bounds Golov-
nin Bay on the west the Russians (Zagosldn) recorded two villages,
the one near to Rocky Point being Chiukak, that on a point farther
northwest being named Chaimiut. Later the name Chiukak became
ap2)lied to tlie former Chaimiut, while Chiukak proper was dead and
forgotten. On latest maps, such as Chart 9302 United States Coast
and Geodetic Survey, neither of the old names appears. The name
Bluff denotes a small settlement in about the location of the former
Chaimiut. Some Eskimo met in Golovnin Bay said that there are
skeletal remains near the original Chiukak, but an attempt to reach
the place failed through rough water.
South Shore of Seward Peninsula West of Bluff
A number of dead villages are found along this coast. The first
and largest is located a few miles west of Port Safety, 18 miles east
"This is the correct orthography. See Russian maps.
HUDLicKA] .ARCHEOLOGY OF WESTERN ESKIMO 197
of Nome. This was a large village extending for a considerable
distance along the elevated beach separating an inland lagoon from
the sea. The depressions of the dwellings, of the usual dipper-with-
handle type, are very plain. Old settlers at Nome remember when
the village was still occupied. Nearer the sea the beach is said to
have been lined with burials, but the storm of 1913 took or covered
everything. (See Narrative, p. 90.)
A small Eskimo settlement existed on a rocky elevation east of
Cape Nome. There are some house sites, but the place gives little
promise of archeological importance. We found evidence that the
site must have been occupied until fairly recently. Among the
bowlders were found two skeletons.
A larger dead village is located near the mouth of a little stream
west of Cape Nome. It is doubtless the Azachagiag of the Zagoskin
general map. It gives no great promise archeologically.
From Nome to Point Spencer there are several old sites, all
" dead "; and there are one or two recently " dead " villages on Sledge
(the old Aiak or Aziak) Island. Of the coast sites, the most impor-
tant is reported to be tliat at Cape Woolley. It is said to have been
the stopping point of the King Islanders and may have been their
old mainland village.
A number of old sites and burial grounds have been seen or learned
of in Port Clarence and Salt Lake. They are marked on the map,
and those of the lake have been discussed in the Narrative (p. 117).
Those on Salt Lake (Imuruk Basin) deserve attention.
Between Port Clarence and Cape Prince of Wales only one, and
that evidently not a very large site, was learned of at Cape York.
The most important site of the peninsula region is doubtless that
at the cape. Thanks to the able local teacher of that time, Mr. Clark
M. Garber, I am able to present a detailed map of this locality. It
is here that Doctor Jenness in 1926 conducted some excavations with
interesting results. But the site has bai-ely been touched. It is the
nearest point to Asia. There are ample indications that it has been
occupied for a long period and by relatively large numbers of people.
Besides the ruined parts and old heaps there are still the skulls and
bones of many burials among the rocks about the village, and there is
evidence that more are in the ground. It is one of the chief sites of
the far northwest for systematic thorough exploration, and such ex-
ploration is a growing necessity for all branches of anthropology
interested in the problems of the Bering Sea and Asiatic-American
connections.
198
ANTHROPOLOGICAL. SURVEY IN ALASKA
[ETH. ANN. 46
ScAMMON Bat, Norton Sound, South Coast of Seward Peninsula,
TO Cape Rodney
[Fig. 22]
91. MelatoKk. — A small coast village.
92. Bimiuf. — A small coast village.
93. Kwlhak. — Eskimo village on the outer coast in the Yukon
Delta, a little south of the mouth of Black River. Native name, from
the Coast Survey, 1898, which gives it as Kwikagamiut. (G. D. A.)
Figure 22. — Eskimo viUagPs and sites, Scanimon Kay to Norton Sound and Bay to
Cape Rodney
94. Kipniak. — Eskimo village and Coast Survey tidal station at
mouth of Black River in the Yukon Delta. Nelson, 1879, reports
its name to be Kipniaguk and Dall writes it phonetically Kip-nai-ak.
(G. D. A.)
95. Kogomiuf. — A small village.
96. W aklarok. — A small village.
hedliOka] AECHEOLOGY OF WESTERN ESKIMO 199
97. N~unam.ehrok. — A small village.
97a. Eleutak. — A small settlement.
98. Nil^. — A small village.
99. Kuv'kluak. — A small village near the mouth of the Kwikluak
Pass of the Yukon, south bank.
100. Alahomuk. — A small settlement.
101. Kwiguk. — ^A village on Kwikluak Pass of the Yukon, north
bank.
102. Kunkpak. — Village near mouth north bank of pass of same
name, Yukon River.
103. Nakhli'wak. — A small village, occupied part of time, about 2
miles from mouth of Apoon Pass, Yukon; visited by the writer; small
skeletal collection.
104. Kotlik Paint. — ^A store and Eskimo camp (summer) at mouth
of Apoon Pass, north bank. (A. H.)
105. Pa-ttol/'k. — Four Eskimo houses, occupied winter. Extensive
burial ground near. Collections, A. Hrdlicka. Good prospects for
excavation in burial places.
106. Pikmiktalik. — Eskimo village, near the mouth of Pikmiktalik
River, about 30 miles to the south of St. Michael, western Alaska.
(G. D. A.)
106a. Pastoliak. — A site near mouth of next small stream to the
north. A few houses. Some burials.
107. St. Michael and Whale Islund. — Old sites, northeast end of
St. Michael and on Whale Island, opposite. A small living village
near the point of the main island, mostly mix bloods. (A. H.)
107a. Dead village. Nelson reports it had been peopled by the
Pastolik Eskimo ("Eskimo about Bering Strait," p. 263).
108. Stebbins. — A living Eskimo village at Ca2:)e Stephens.
110. Golsova. — A small camp at mouth of river of same name.
111. TJnalaMeet {or Unalaklik) .- — Important old Eskimo village,
Norton Sound; western end of portage to Yukon. Population in
1880, 100 ; in 1890, 175.
112. Shaktolik. — Eskimo village, at mouth of Shaktolik River,
Norton Sound. Population in 1880, 60; in 1890, 38. (G. D. A.)
Old settlement ; several old sites in this region.
113. NitMit. — Eskimo village, on the eastern shore of Norton
Sound, immediately behind Cape Denbigh. (G. D. A.) Originally
given on Zagoskin's general map. (A. H.)
113a. Tapkhalik. — Old village on east shore of Norton Bay.
114. Unakhtuglig or Unagttdig. — Originally given on Zagoskin's
general map. (A. H.)
115. Kviguk. — Eskimo village, on north shore of Norton Bay, at
mouth of the Kviguk River. Eskimo name, from the Russians.
200 ANTHROPOLOGICAL STJEVEy IN ALASKA [bth. ann. 46
Tikhmenief, 1861, has Kviegmiut and Kvieguk-miut ; i. e.,'Kviguk
people. (G. D. A.) Originally on Zago&kin's general map.
116. Kvig-tiMut. — Old village, above the preceding; originally on
Zagoskin's general map.
117. Kvinl'hak {n.ow Inglestat). — Old village at head of Norton
Bay. Originally on Zagoskin's general map.
118. TuJukhtidig {at or ivear Elim). — Old village on west coast
of Norton Bay.
119. Atn'tk. — Old village below the preceding.
120. Camp {Reindeer).
121. Chinig.— Old village at or near the site of present mission;
name now erroneously applied to village at Point Golovnin.
122. Ikalikhvig. — Present Cheenik. at Point Golovnin.
123. Old site; located 1926 (A. H.) ; a moderate-sized village;
not promising for excavation.
124. Knikhtak. — Originally on Zagoskin's general map; now a
camp, no old remains in evidence ; a house and four burials on same
shore, 2 miles farther south; collection (A. H.).
125. Chiukak. — Dead village; on Zagoskin's general map; some
skeletal material remaining; name-now applied to a village farther
up the coast.
126. Chainmut. — Dead village; originally on Zagoskin's general
map ; name belonged to village nearer the point.
127. VkvikhtuUg. — Dead village at Topkok Head; originally on
Zagoskin's general map.
128. Dead village, 18 miles east of Nome, near Port Safety.
(A.H.)
129. Azacha-glag. — Dead village, west of Cape Nome; originally
on Zagoskin's general map.
130. Nome. — Probably small native village at this site in the past.
Now principal white settlement in western Alaska. King Island,
Diomede, and some Wales natives reside on the outskirts during
summer.
131. Aziak Island {Sledge Islarul). — Two dead villages; the prin-
cipal one at the northern point of the island. Visited by Collins,
1928. Collections.
132. >S7«.wA-.— Small old site.
133. King Island {Ukiook). — Old village, still occupied in winter;
in summer inhabitants live at Nome.
133a. A village site at Cape Woolley ; said to be the stopping place
of the King Islanders.
134. Dead sites.
135. Burials.
136. Siniak. — Now a Lutheran Mission for the Eskimo.
brdliCka]
AECHEOLOGY OF WESTERN ESKIMO
201
Figithe 23. — Eskimo Tillages and sites, Wales. (By Clark M. Garber, 1927)
88253°— 30 14
202 ANTHROPOLOGICAL. SURVEY IN ALASKA [HTH. ann. 48
137. Teller. — Old Eskimo site; some still live here with a few
whites. A few Eskimo camps along Tuksuk Channel.
138. Salt Lake {Invur'uk Basin). — Ruins seen on north shore.
(A. H.)
139. Old sites near eastern end of lake ; a Chukchee-Eskimo battle-
field in vicinity. (A. H.)
140. Old village site on the St. Marys River.
141. Burials reported.
142. Wales. — Old Nykhta, Zagoskin's maps; see special descrip-
tion; collections.
The Northern Shore of the Seward Peninsttla
This shore is but little known to science. It is dangerous of ap-
proach to any except small boats. The only place that could be
visited by me was Shishmaref, a good-sized thriving Eskimo village,
on both sides of which along the sea are remains of old sites with
burials. The more important old settlement was that to the east
of the village. Here are found large and extensive heaps, the tops
of which have recently been leveled for fox cages, the whole site
belonging, regrettably, to a newly established fox farm. It is an
old site, though probably occupied up to white man's times, and
is doubtless of some importance. Excavations would still be possible,
as the bulk of the remains is intact; and though the surface skeletal
material has been removed (part saved for our collections), there are
indications of surface burials (assimilations by the tundra) in the
ground.
Between Wales and Shishmaref are several dead sites, as shown
on the map, and some of them, judging from the information ob-
tained, are of promise. One of these settlements, " Tapkhaig," was
evidently still a living village at the time of Zagoskin (1840).
Northeast and east of Shishmaref the coast is known even less than
that to the west. A few miles off Shishmaref I saw from a distance —
the boat could not approach nearer — what to all appearances was a
large ridge of ruins, and from various maps and other sources in-
formation was obtained of several other sites, all of which represent
former villages. From one of these sites on the Bucknell River Mr.
Carl Lomen secured a fine piece of fossil ivory carving, and the site
is said to be of much promise. The whole coast is a virgin field for
archeology.
143. Mitletukemk.— Old village site. Visited by Collins, 1928;
collections.
144. Tapkhaig or Ekpik. — Old village site, originally shown in
Zagoskin's general map.
145. Sinrazat. — Old site.
HRDLICK4]
ARCHEOLOGY OF WESTERN ESKIMO
203
146. Karatuk or Shishinwef. — Living village, with ruins on both
sides. Visited by A. H. ; collections.
147. Kimdlow. — Old site.
148. Old site reported.
148a. 8ivk.—<d\^ site.
149. Old site (?).
150. Paapkuk. — Old site.
151. Deenng. — Recent settlement, but old sites probable in vicinity.
151a. Kualing. — Old village, now long dead, shown by Zagoskin.
(General map.)
Figure 24. — Eskimo Tillages and sites, Seward Peninsula, Kotzebue Sound, and Arctic
Coast, to Kevalina
152. Kivmlik. — A village at mouth of river of same name.
153. Dead villages reported on the two promontories; promising
archeologically. On Elephant Point Nelson saw the site of an old
village " with about 15 pits marking the locations of the houses."
(Eskimo of Bering Strait. 264.)
153a. Buckland River. Camp sites.
153b. Old village site.
154. Old whaling place, occupied summers only. (S. Chance.)
155. Seloiwik. — Old village. Old igloos and camps at various
places in the Selawik Basin. (S. Chance.)
156. Camps. (S, Chance.)
204 AXTHEOPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. axn. 46
166a. Chilvvik. — A village, now long dead, shown on the general
map of Zagoskin.
157. Fish camps. (A. H.)
KoTZEBUE Sound, Its Rivers and Its Coast Northward to Kevalina
Figure 24 shows the village sites that it was possible to locate in
these regions. Nearly all these are now " dead villages," though some
Eskimo may still occasionally camp in their vicinity. A large
present settlement of the Eskimo, well advanced toward civilization,
is found at Kotzebue, and fish camps extend from here along the
shore in the direction of Cape Blossom. Another important recent
living village and school center is Noorvik on the lower Kobuk
River.
Inquiries as to old sites in this region were greatly assisted by Mr.
Sylvester Chance, at the time of my visit the supervisor of the Gov-
ernment schools of the district. At my request and with the aid
of the natives Mr. Chance has compiled a list of such sites and
settlements as could st^ill be remembered, and the information has
been incorporated into these records.
Among the more important ruins of this vicinity are apparently
those at and near Cape Krusenstern, and again those near Kevalina
farther to the northward. Archeological specimens of considerable
interest were seen and partly secured from both localities. The old
Kevalina especially should receive early attention, for it is being
excavated by the Eskimo of the present village, though fortunately
this is at some distance.
Seward Peninsula, Kotzebue Sound, and Northward
158. Kotzebue. — Old name : Kikikhtagiulc. (Zagoskin, general
map.) A small white with a large Eskimo settlement. Old burials
in ground (assimilated). A. H. collections.
159. Noorvik. — White and native village; school center.
160. Oksik. — Old camp, still occupied. (S. Chance.)
161. K'lana. — Old village, still occupied. (S. Chance.)
162. ShesoaUk. — Old camjD, still occupied in summer. (S. Chance.)
162a. Kuhok. — Old village shown on general map of Zagoskin.
163. Aniyak. — Old camp, still occupied. (S. Chance.)
164. Old site reported here ; said to be promising archeologically.
165. Tikizat. — Eskimo village, at Cape Krusenstern, Arctic Ocean.
Eskimo name, from Petrof, 1880, who reported a population in that
year of 75.
166. KUigmak. — Old camp, still occupied.
167. Noatak, — A living village,
HRDLieKA] ARCHEOLOGY OF WESTERN ESKIMO 205
168. Old camp, exact location not certain. (S. Chance.)
169. Matthew or Aniyak. — Old camp.
170. Ottalu. — Camp, occupied. (S. Chance.)
171. Old site reported; exact location ( ?).
172. Old site, rich archeologicalh% exact location undetermined;
small collection. (A. H.)
173. Kevalina. — Living Eskimo village.
174. Plngo. — Old dead village. (S. Chance, Jim Allen.)
Kevalina — Point Barrow
POINT HOPE (TlG.iRA)
This is tlie most important ruin as well as living Eskimo village
in Arctic Alaska. It is unanimously declared by the Eskimo of the
coast to be one of the oldest settlements and has always been the
largest native center on the coast. The point was called Golovnin
Point by the early Russians; it was called Point Hope by Beechey
in 1826 in honor of Sir William Johnston Hope. At the time of its
visit by the revenue cutter Corwin, 1884, there are said to have been
two villages ;" the second being possibly at the site of the old whaling
station. Rasmussen, who visited the village about 1924, speaks of
it in part as follows : ^* " Point Hope or Tikeraq, ' the pointing finger,'
is one of the most interesting Eskimo settlements on the whole coast
of Alaska, and has doubtless the largest collection of ruins. The
old village, now deserted, consists of 122 very large houses, but as
the sea is constantly washing away jDarts of the land and carrying
off more houses, it is impossible to say what may have been the origi-
nal number. Probably the village here and its immediate neighbor-
hood had at one time something like 2,000 souls, or as many as are
now to be found throughout the whole of the Northwest Passage
between the Magnetic Pole and Herschel Island."
The ruins are to the northwest and west of the j^resent village.
Those to the northwest consist of imposing hea^is, which together
form an elevated ridge facing the sea. It is said that this old
settlement was abandoned because of the encroachments upon it by
the sea, particularly during storms.
The ruins of this main compound have been for several years
assiduously excavated inch by inch by the local Eskimo, and thou-
sands of articles of great variety, of stone, bone, ivory, and wood,
with here and there in the uppermost layers an object of metal, are
being gathered and sold to all comers. With these are found a few
human skulls and bones, but esj^ecially the skulls and bones of various
animals, all of which unfortunately have hitherto been left behind in
«" Healy, M. A. Cruise of the Concin in the Arctic Ocean 18S4. Washington. 188!>. p. 27-
" Rasmussen. Knud, Across Arctic America. New T01I5, London. 1927, 329-330.
206 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ann. 46
the mud. But the probably most valuable central and lower por-
tions of the piles remain. The locality calls loudly for proper ex-
ploration, which will well repay any museum by the quantity and
value of the specimens that are sure to be recovered.
POINT HOPE TO POINT BARROW
Information about this i^art of the northwesternmost coast of
Alaska was obtained principally from Jim Allen, the trader at
Wainwright, and Charles Brower, the trader at Barrow; but parts
of the coast were also examined in person. The number of old sites
is rather large, but it appears that there is not much of special
promise until we reach near Barrow.
Old " igloos " southwest of Barrow : From 5 to 8 miles south-
west of Barrow and at some distance (up to about 400 yards) from
the shore there existed, and in part still exist, a series of elevations
which the natives of Barrow always regarded as natural. On
excavation the larger of these elevations proved to be old structures
with numerous burials and cultural objects, and the remains, as
shown elsewhere, are exceptional for this coast. Six of these
" mounds " have been excavated by the University of Pennsylvania
Expedition (Van Valin), while several are still remaining. It is
very important that these should be carefully excavated before they
are attacked by the natives of Barrow for mercenary puriDoses.
BARROW AND POINT BARROW
Two large living villages, with old sites and inhumed (natural)
burials in their vicinity, and w'ith some old remains between them.
Barrow is the most important present mixed settlement and center of
civilization in the Arctic. Besides the school, it contains a mission
hospital and recently a meteorological observatory and wireless sta-
tion. The tundras to the east of the village for about lyo miles show
patches of burials, particularly in the more distant parts of this
region on the elevations to both sides of a small stream.
Much archeological work remains to be done about Barrow, par-
ticularly in the remainder of the old " igloos." East of Point Bar-
row the population is very sparse and no ruins of any note or settle-
ments are rei^orted before those of the Barter Island and the mouth
of the Colville River.
175. Prngishufftiruk. — A small old site.
176. Ketchemeluk. — A small old site.
I76a. Ijmot. — Eskimo village on the Arctic coast, near Cape
Thomson, a little south of Point Hope. Name from Petrof, who
wrote it Ip-Not and Ipnot, and reported a population of 40 in 1880.
177. Old whaling station.
hrdlilka]
AECHEOLOGY OF WESTERN ESKIMO
207
178. Point Hope or Tigara. — Eskimo village at Point Hope, Arctic
Ocean. It is Tiekagag-miut of Tikhmenief , 1861 ; Tikirak of Petrof,
1880, who reports a population in that year of 276. Spelled Tikera
in the Eleventh Census. Herendeen gives Tik-i-rah. The Eskimo
name of the settlement is said to be Tik-i-rah-mum. Visited by
A. H. ; important collections.
179. Weumk {or Wevok). — Eskimo village on the Arctic coast,
near Cape Lisburne. Eskimo name, published by the Hydrographic
Office in 1890. (G. D. A.) (Jim Allen.)
Figure 25. — Eskimo villages and .sites, Kevalina to Point Barrow
180. Iniktilik. — Small village, occupied. (S. Chance.)
181. Pittivegia. — A small old site at the mouth of river of same
name, north side. (Jim Allen, S. Chance.)
e. Napayochak. — Old camp, two igloos. (S. Chance.)
/. Tolageak. — ^A small old site. (S. Chance.)
g. Emelik. — A small old site. (S. Chance.)
?L Pingasoogarook, — Old village, still occupied. (S. Chance.)
182. UTnalik.
183. Koochik.
184.
185.
Trapping stations; igloos. (S. Chance.)
208 ANTHKOPOLOGICAL SURVEY IS ALASKA [eth. ANN. 40
186. KokoJik. — Eskimo settlement, at Point Lay, Arctic coast.
(G. D. A.) Old but still partly occupied village. (S. Chance.)
Kelik. (Jim Allen.)
187. Napaijochik. — Old camp, two igloos. (S. Chance.)
188. Tolageak. — Old dead igloos. (S. Chance.)
189. Utukok. — Old small settlement at northern mouth of Utukok
River.
190. Enielik. — Old deserted igloo. (S. Chance.)
191. Kayakshulik, — A live village at Icy Cape. (Jim Allen, S.
Chance.)
192. NokotJih (f).— Old igloo. (S. Chance.)
193. Mitliktcbvik. — A dead moderate-sized village, about 5 miles
below Kilik. (Jim Allen.)
194. Kilimantavic. — Eskimo village, near Wainwright Inlet, Arc-
tic coast. Tikhmenief , 1861, calls it Kilametagag-miut ; Petrof , 1880,
calls it Kolumalrturook; Hydrographic Chart 68 calls it Kelamanto-
wruk, while later charts omit it or call it Kilimantavic. According
to Murdoch this name is Ke-lev-a-tow-tin (sling). (G. D. A.) A
large dead village about 20 miles below Wainwright. (Jim Allen.)
Kilamitavic. (S. Chance.)
195. Old abandoned camp. (S. Chance.)
196. Wamv:righf. — A large living native village; some remains
of old habitations on its eastern outskirts. (A. H.) About a mile
south of present settlements are the remains of the old village once
occupied by the Wainwright people. (Jim Allen.)
197. KMiii.—Old site.
198. Sedaini. — Old dead village.
199. Atnik. — Old dead village. (S. Chance.) Possibly same with
next.
200. Itanik. — On maps Atanik. Old village, still partly occupied.
(S. Chance,- Jim Allen.) Called Ataniek in Tikhmenief, 1861.
(G. D. A.)
201. PmoshMragin. — Petrof, 1880, shows a native village of this
name (population 29) on the Seahorse Islands. On British Ad-
miralty Chart 593 (ed. of 1882) it is called Pingoshugarun.
(G. D. A.) Pingasoogarook : Old village, still occupied. (S.
Chance.)
202. Kok/oJak. — Two old igloos, still occupied. (S. Chance.)
203. Sakmnna. — Small camp.
204. Sinm'u. — Small camp about 22 miles from Barrow; visited
by A. H. ; small skeletal collection.
205. Walakpa. — A small dead old settlement about 12 miles from
Barrow.
206. Nunava. — Small camp.
bhdliCka]
ARCHEOLOGY OF WESTERN ESKIMO
209
207. " Old Igloos." — A veiy important site archeologically. Ex-
plored partly by Van Valin. (See special section devoted to this
site.)
208. Barvoxo. — Known also as Utkiavik. Uglaamie, or the Cape
Smyth village. Important white and Eskimo settlement. Old re-
mains. Extensive burial grounds east of village. (A. H. collec-
tions.)
209. Nvmmwa. — Remains of old camping site, about 4 miles from
Barrow.
210. Point Ban'ow. — The Eskimo Nuwuk. Good-sized living vil-
lage. Remains of older habitations. Population in 1853, 309.
(G. D. A.)
The St. Lawrence and Diomede Islands
ST. LAWRENCE ISLAND
Ranking in archeological and anthropological importance with
Wales and in some respects perhaps even exceeding the latter, is
the large island of St. Lawrence, with the almost forgotten little
Punuk group at its eastern extremity.
Figure 26. — Russian map of St. Lawrence Island, 1849. (Tebenkof)
The main island was discovered by Bering on St. Lawrence Day,
August 10, 1728, and it was found peopled by the Eskimo. In 1849
an excellent map of it was published by Tebenkof in Novo-Archan-
gelsk, and on this map (fig. 26) are indicated about a dozen smaller
or larger Eskimo settlements, some of which, however, are not named
and may already have been " dead."
About 1878 there were still six settlements with somewhat less than
1,500 Eskimo inhabitants on the island. That winter (1878-79) not
210 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ANN. 46
less than 1,000 of the population died of famine (Hooper), three of
the villages becoming completely depopulated and a fourth nearly so.
The Punuk Island village may have become extinct about the same
time.
To-day there are on the St. Lawrence Island but two living settle-
ments, the main one, now known as Gambell, at the old site of Chi-
bukak on the northwestern cape, and the other, Savonga, about 40
miles east of it, near Cape North.
A number of the old sites on this island, and also that on one of the
Punuks, indicate a long occupation, antedating by far the advent
of the Russians. The accumulations rise in some places to imposing
heaps or ridges. Their frozen contents yield quantities of fossil
ivory, all of which shows the work of man, and among them occur
specimens with fine curvilinear designs and of high scientific as well
as artistic value.
Through Nelson in 1881 and R. D. Moore in 1912 the Smithsonian
Institution has acquired a large quantity of human skeletal material
from the main island, and there is now (1928) an expedition of the
Institution under Collins on the Punuk as well as the St. Lawrence
exploring some of the principal ruins.
THE DIOMEDE ISLANDS AND THE ASIATIC COAST
[Figs. 27 and 28]
The smaller or American Diomede, though a very inhospitable
place, supports, and that evidently since long, a small Eskimo vil-
lage of stone houses, below and about which there is a considerable
accumulation of refuse. Doctor Jenness dug here for a short time
in 1926.
The larger or Russian Diomede has two villages, each of which is
larger than the one on the smaller island. There are also said
to be some remains in a broad depression on the eastern side of the
island, while skeletal remains are reported by the natives to exist
among the rocks on the top. This island is in need of thorough
attention. Its people are reputed to be skilled ivory workers. They
come yearly to Nome, where they were visited and seen at their
work by the writer. They bring each year some fossil ivory, said
lo come mainly from the Asiatic coast, and among this are occa-
sionally articles of much interest.
Ruins of Eskimo villages are also present along the coasts of the
Chukchee Peninsula, both those facing the Bering Sea and those
along the Arctic. Very little is definitely known or can be found
from the American Eskimo about these ruins, and some of them
may not be Eskimo. Nelson in his book (p. 26.5) reports briefly
HRDLIC'KA]
ARCHEOLOGY OF WESTERN ESKIMO
211
on a few about Cape Wankarem. Interesting objects of the fossil
ivory culture are said to occur in these old sites as far west as the
Kolyma, but nothing is certain except that there are ruins, that a
good number of them are probably Eskimo, and that fossil ivory,
both worked (walrus) and unworked (mammoth), comes from these
tJUOHAN \
'AS ,
66"
64-
172° 170°
FiGL'RE i7. — Eskimo viUages and sites, St. Lawrence Island, the Diomedes. and the
eastern Asiatic coast
coasts. A noteworthy report is that of a large native cemetery
on the Bering Sea side, with hundreds of burials in rough stone-
slab graves. Information of this was given me by Joe Bernard,
well known in connection with Bering Sea explorations, who had
seen the site in person.
212
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA
[ETH. ANN. 46
211. Gatnhell {or Chibukuk). — Old Eskimo settlement on the
northwest cape of St. Lawrence Island. United States National
Museum expedition, 1912, by Riley D. Moore; anthropometric data;
important collections.
212. Small sites, north bay, St. Lawrence Island, indicated on 1849
Russian map (q. v.).
213. Savonga. — A small modern Eskimo village. A. II., 1926;
some collections.
214. Ruins of an old site 4 miles northeast of Savonga. Impor-
tant archeologically.
215. Kwluliak. — Dead village.
216. Former summer site. Given on the 1849 Russian map.
N
<^s
:i/vf//v-
CE: or WALES'
FlGLBE 28. — The Ili-ring Strait Islands
217. Important old site with large accumulations on one of the
two Punuk Islands. Explored 1928 by Collins; collections.
218. Kidegak. — Dead village. Important archeologically. Partly
explored by Collins, 1928; collections.
219. Chitnak. — One of the dead villages of 1879. (Nelson,
Hooper.)
220. Pugwviliak. — One of the dead villages of 1879. (Nelson,
Hooper. )
221. Old site; no details available.
222. Living small village on the smaller (American) Diomede Is-
land. Some old accumulations. A. H., 1926, collections; some exca-
vations same year by D. Jenness.
HkdliCka] physical ANTHROPOLOGY 213
223. Nunarhuk. — Village still occupied, on greater (Russian)
Diomede, located on an elevated slope around the southern cape of
the island. Skeletal and other remains reported on top ot mesa.
224. Village, still occupied, on an elevated saddle near middle of
west coast of island.
225. Eskimo village, East Cajoe of Asia. Other villages indicated
along the coast of Chukchee Peninsula. Others on north coast.
(See Nelson, The Eskimo of Bering Strait, p. 265.)
PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Earlier Data
The previously published data on the western Eskimo are few in
number and mostly not as well documented as would be desirable.
There are, however, a good number of references to the physical
characteristics of the people by explorers. The main of these are
given below. These references in general are not of much scientific
value, yet in some instances they approach this closely and are of
considerable interest collectively.
1784,' Cook:"
The inlet which we had now quitted, was distinguished by Captain Cook
with the name of Prince William's Sound. * * * The natives whom we
saw were in general of a middling stature, though many of them were under
it. They were square or strong chested, with short thick necks, and large
broad visages which were for the most part rather flat. The most dispropor-
tioned part of their body appeared to be their heads, which were of great mag-
nitude. Their teeth were of a tolerable whiteness, broad, well set, and equal
in size. Their noses had full round points, turned up at the tip; and their
eyes, though not small, were scarcely pi'oportioned to the largeness of their
faces. The.v had black hair which was strong, straight, and thick. Their
beards were in general thin or deficient, but the hairs growing about the lips,
of those who have them, were bristly or stiff and often of a brownish color;
and some of the elderly men had large, thick straight beards. * * * The
complexion of some of the females, and of the children, is white without any
mixture of red. Many of tlie men, whom we .saw naked, had rather a swarthy
cast, which was scarcely the effect of any stain, as it is not their custom to
paint their bodies.
Vol. 3, page 31. All the Americans we had seen since ovfr arrival on that
coast (west coast of Alaska) had round, chubby faces, and high cheek bones,
and were rather low of stature.
Ibid., page 72: Norton Sound.— The woman was short and squat and her
visage was plump and round. * * » Her husband was well made and about
5 feet 2 inches in height. His hair was black and short, and he had but little
beard. His complexion was of a light copper cast. * * * The teeth of both
of them were black, and appeared as if they had been filed down level with
the gums.
" Cook, Capt. James, and Capt. James King. A Voyage to the Pacific Ocean. London,
1784, II, vol. 2, p. 300.
214 ANTHKOPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ann. 46
1821, Kotzebue : ^^
Kofxrbue Sound. — The Americans [i. e., Eskimo] are of a middle size, robust
make, and healthy appearance ; their countenances * * * are characterized
by small eyes and very high cheek bones.
1832, Beechey : "
The western Esquimaux appear to be intimately connected with the tribes in-
habiting the northern and nortlieastern shores of America, in language, fea-
tures, manners, and customs. They at the same time, in many respects, re-
semble the Tschutschi. from whom they are probably descended. * * *
They are taller in stature than the eastern Esquimaux, their average height
being about 5 feet 7Vi inches. They are also a better looking race, if I may
Judge from the natives I saw in Baffin's Bay, and frohi tlie portraits of others
that have been published. At a comparatively early age, however, they (the
women in particular) soon lose this comeliness, and old age is attended with a
haggard and careworn countenance, rendered more unbecoming by sore eyes
and by teeth worn to the gums by frequent mastication of hard substances.
1850, Latham : ^«
Pliysically the Eskimo is a Mongol and Asiatic.
The Eskimos of the Atlantic are not only easily distinguished from the
tribes of American aborigines which lies to the south or west of them, and with
•which they come in contact, but they stand in strong contrast and opposition
to them — a contrast and opposition exhibited equally in appearance, manners,
language, and one which has had full justice done to it by those who have
written on the subject.
It is not so with the Eskimos of Russian-America, and the parts that look
upon the Pacific. These are so far from being separated by any broad and
trenchant line of demarcation from the proper Indians or the so-called red
race, that they pass gradually into it, and that in respect to their habits, man-
ner, and api>earance, equally. So far is this the case tliat he would be a bold
man who should venture, in speaking of the southern tribes of Russian- America,
to say here the Eskimo area ends and here a different area begins.
1853, Hooper : *^
Kotzebue Sound Esgui'meaux. — The men generally were taller than the aver-
age of Europeans, strongly built and well foraied ; some had well-marked fea-
tures * * *. The women were generally short, the visages of the younger
ones tolerably good but * * * the very reverse was the case with the dames
of more advanced age. Their figures inclined to the squat, their mien and ex-
pression promised intelligence and good nature. Although both sexes had in
most instances the round flat face of the Mongolian cast, a few individuals
possessed well-defined, though petite features, and all had fine eyes.
"Kotzebue. Otto von, A voyaRe of discovery into the South Sea and Bering Strait,
1815-1818, vol. 1, p. 209. London, 1821.
*' Beechey, F. W., Narrative of a voyage to the Pacific and Bering Strait. Philadelphia,
1832, pp. 474-47G.
•"Latham, Robert G., The varieties of man. London, 1850, pp. 290-292.
" Hooper, W. H., Ten months among the tents of the Tuski. London, 1853, pp. 223-224.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 31'
Graves at Nash Harbor. Nunivak island
(Photos by Collins and Stewart, 1927.)
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 33
-^iiir^
a, Children, Nunivak Island. (Photo by Collins and Stewart, 1927)
b, Adults, Nunivak Island. (.Phuto bj Cuilins and Stewart, Vj21)
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNTAI. REPORT PLATE 34
King island Eskimo; A Family Group
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 35
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BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 37
Typical Full-blood Eskimo, northern Bering Sea Region
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HRDLifKA] PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 215
1853, Seemann, vol. ii, pages 49-51: ^"
The Eskimos. — By comparing the accounts transmitted by different writers
we find that the various tribes, however widely separated geographically, differ
but slightly from each other in appearance, manners, customs, or language.
They are, however, by no means as uniform in size as might have been
expected. Those inhabiting the vicinity of Norton and Kotzebue Sounds are
by far the finest and tallest, while those li\'ing between Cape Lisburne and
Point Barrow are, like the tribes of the eastern jwrtions of America, much
shorter in stature, and bespeak the inferiority of the districts in which
they live.
Both sexes are well proportioned, stout, muscular, and active. The hands
and feet are small and beautifully formed, which is ascribed by some writers
to their sedentary habits, but this cannot be the case, as probably no people
take more exercise or are more constantly employed. Their height varies. In
the southern parts some of the men are 6 feet ; in the more northern there is
a perceptible diminution, though by no means to the extent generally imagined.
Their faces are flat, their cheek bones projecting, and their eyes small,
■ deeply set, and, like the eyebrows, black. Their noses are broad ; their ears
are large, and generally lengthened by the appendage of weighty ornaments ;
their mouths are well formed, their lips are thin. * * *
The teeth of the Eskimos are regular, but from the nature of their food and
from their practice of preparing hides by chewing, are worn down almost to
the gums at an early age. Their hair is straight, black, and coarse; the men
have it closely cut on the crown, like that of a Capuchin friar, leaving a band
about two inches broad, which gradually increases in length towards the back
of the neck; the women merely part their hair in the middle, and, if wealthy,
ornament it with strings of beads. Tlie possession of a beard is very rare,
but a slight moustache is not infrequent. Their complexion, if divested of its
usual covering of dirt, can hardly be called dark ; on the contrary, it displays
a healthy, rosy tint, and were it not for the custom of tattooing the chin
some of the girls might be called pretty, even in the European acc^tation of
the term.
1861, Kichardson : ^^
The Eskimos are remarkably uniform in physical appearance throughout
their far-stretching area, there being perhaps no other nation in the world so
unmixed in blood. Frobisher's people were struck with their resemblance in
features and general aspect to the Samoyeds and their physiognomy has been
held by all ethnologists to be of the Mongolian or Tartar type. Doctor Latham
calls the Samoyeds Hyperborean Mongolidae, and the Eskimos he ranges among
the American Mongolidae, embracing in the latter group all the native races of
the New World. The Mongol type of countenance is, however, more strongly
reproduced in the Eskimos than in the red Indians — the conterminous Tinng
tribes differing greatly in their features, and the more remote Indians still
more.
Generally the Eskimos have broadly egg-shaped faces with considerable
prominence of the rounded cheeks caused by the arching of the cheek bones, but
few or no angular projections even in the old people, whose features are always
" Seemann, Berthold, Narrative of the voy.ige of H. M. S. Heralil. London, 1S53, vols.
I— n. On the Anthropology of Western Eskimo Land and on the Desirability of Further
Arctic Research. J. Anthrop. Soc, London, 1865, vol. in, p. 301.
"Richardson, Sir John, The Polar Regions. Edinburgh, 1861, p. 301.
216 ANTHROPOLOGICAL, SURVEY IN ALASKA [BIH. axn. 4«
much weather beaten and furrowed. The greatest breadth of the face is just
below the eyes, the forehead tapers upward, eiidiiis narrowl.v, hut not acutely,
and in like manner the chin is a blunt cone ; both the forehead and the chin
recede, the egg outline showing in profile, though not so strongly, as in a
front view. The nose is broad and depressed, but not in all, some individuals
having prominent noses, yet almost mil have wider nostrils than Europeans.
The eyes have small and oblique apertures like the Chinese, and from frequent
attacks of ophthalmia and the effect of lamp smoke in their winter habitations
adults of both sexes are disfigured by excoriated or ulcerated eyelids. The
sight of these people is, from its constant exercise, extremely keen, and the
habit of bringing the eyelids nearly together when looking at distant objects
has in all the grown males produced a striking cluster of furrows radiating
from the outer corners of each eye over the temples.
The complexions of the E.skimos when relieved from smoke and dirt are
nearly white and show little of the copper color of the red Indians. Infants
have a good deal of red on the cheeks, and when by chance their faces are
tolerably clean are much like European children, the national peculiarities of
countenance being slighter at an early age. Many of the young women appear
even pretty from the liveliness and good nature that beams in their counte-
nances. The old women are frightfully ugly * * *.
The young men have little beard, but some of the old ones have a tolerable
show of long gray hairs on the upi>er lip and chin. * • * The Eskimo
beard, however, is in no instance so dense as a European one.
The hair of the head is black and coarse, the lips thlckish, and the teeth of
the young people white and regular, but the sand that, through want of cleanli-
ness, mixes with their food, wears the teeth down at an early age almost to
the level of the gums, so that the incisors often have broad crowns like the
molars.
The average stature of the Eskimos is below the English standard, but thej
can not be said to be a dwarfish race. The men vary in height from about
5 feet to 5 feet 10 inches or even more. They are a broad-shouldered race,
and when •■seated in their kayaks look tall and muscular, but when standing
lose their apparent height by a seemingly disproportionate shortness of the
lower extremities. This want of symmetry may arise from the dress, as the
proportions of various parts of the body have not been tested by accurate
measurements. The hands and feet are delicately small and well formed.
Mr. Simpson (Blue Book, 1855) observed an undue shortness of the thumb in
the western Eskimos, which, if it exists farther to the east, was not noted by
the members of the searching expeditions.
1870, Dall : '-
Page 136: The Innuit, as they call themselves, belong to the same family as
the northern and western Eskimo. I have frequently used the term Eskimo
in referring to them, but they are in many respects very different people.
* * * It should be thoroughly and definitely understood that they are not
Indians nor have they any known relation, iihysieally * * * to the Indian
tribes of North America. Their grammar, appearance, habits, and even their
anatomy, especially in the form of the skull, separate them widely from the
Indian race. On the other hand, it is almost equally questionable whether
they are even distinctly [distantly?] related to the Chukchees and other prob-
ably Mongolian races, of the eastern part of Siberia.
" Dall, W. H., Alaska and Its Resources. Boston, 1870. .
HBDLIl'KA]
PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 219
fully shaped bands and feet ; " a pyramidal head ; " a broad egg-shapetl face ;
high rounded cheek bones ; flat nose : small (iblique eyes : large mouth : teeth
regular, but well worn;'" coai-se black hair closely cut up<in the crown, leav-
ing a monk-like ring around the edt'e."" and a paucity of beard." "'
more than 5 feet Id heigbr." — Figuier's Flumaii Race, p. 211. At Kotzebiie Sound "tallest
man was 5 feet 0 incbes : tallest woman 5 feet 4 incUes." — Beechey's Voy., i, 360.
"Average lieiglit ivas 5 feet 41^ incbes " ; at tbe mouth of the Mackenzie tbey are of
" middle stature, strong, and muscular." — Armstrong's Nar., 140, 1S2. " Low, broad set,
not well made nor strong." — Hearne's Trav., p. IGG. " The men were in general stout." —
Franklin's Nar.. i, 29. " Of a middle size, robust make, and healthy appearance." —
Kotzebue's Voy., i, 209. " Men vary in height from about 5 feet to 5 feet 10 inches." —
Richardson's Pol. Reg., p. 304. " Women were generally short." " Their figure inclines
to squat." — Hooper's Tuski, p. 224.
^" Hands and feet. — " Tous les individus qui appartiennent 4 la famille des Esquimaux
se distingucnt par la petitcsse de leurs pieds et de leurs mains, et la grosseur toorme de
leurs tetes." — De Pauw, Recberches I'bil. I, 2C2. " Thi; hands, and feet are delicately
small and well formed." — Richardson's Pol. Reg., p. 304. " Small and beautifully made." —
.Seemann's 'N'oy. Ilernld, ii, 50. At Point Barrow " Their hands, notwithstanding the great
amount of manual labor to which they are subject, were beautifully small and well formed,
a description equally applicable to their feet..' — Armstrong's Nar., p. 101.
<* Head. — " The head is of good size, rather flat superiorly, but very fully developed
posteriorly, evidencing a preponderance of tbe animal passions ; the forehead was for the
most part low and receding ; in a few it was somewhat vertical but narrow." — Arm-
strong's Xar., p. 193. Their cranial characteristics "are tbe strongly developed coronary
ridge, the obliquity of the zygoma, and its greater capacity compared with the Indian
cranium. The former is essentially pyramidal, while the latter more nearly approaches a
cubic shape." — Dall's Alaska, p. 376. " Greatest breadth of the face is just below the eyes,
the forehead tapers upwards, ending narrowly but not acutely, and in like manner tbe
chin is a blunt cone." — Richardson's Pol. Keg., p. 302. Doctor Gall, whose observations on
the same skulls presented him for phrenological observation are published by M. Louis
Choris, thus comments upon the head of a female Eskimo from Kotzebue Sound :
'• L'organe de I'insinct de la propagation se trouve extremement develops pour une tete de
temmo." lie finds the musical and intellectual organs poorly developed, whUe vanity and
love of children arc well displayed. " En gf-ncral," sagely concluded tbe doctor, " cette
tcte femme prc!sentait une organization aussi heureuse que celle de la plupart des femmes
d'Europc. " — Voy. Pitt., pt. iij p. 16.
"" Feice. — " Large, tat, round faces, high cheek bones, small hazel eyes, eyebrows slant-
ing like the Chinese, and wide mouths." — Beechey's Voy., i, 345. " Broad, flat faces,
high cheek bones." — Doctor Hayes in Hist. Mag., i, p. G. Their " teeth are regular, but
from the nature of their food and from their practice of preparing hides by chewing, are
worn down almost to the gums at au early age." — Seemaun's Voy. Herald, ii, 51. At
Hudson Strait, "broad, flat, pleasing face; small and generally sore eyes; given to bleed-
ing at tbe nose. " — Franklin's Nar., i, 20. " Small eyes and very high cheek bones." —
Kotzebue's Voy., i, 209. " La face platte. la bouche ronde. le nez petit sans etre Serase,
le blanc de I'oeil jaunatre, I'iris noir et peu briUant." — De Pauw, Recberches Phil., i, 262.
They have " small, wild-looking eyes, large and very foul teeth, the hair generally black,
but sometimes fair, and always in extreme disorder." — Brownell's Indian Race?, p. 467.
"As contrasted with the other native American races, their eyes are remarkable, being
narrow and more or less oblique.'' — Richardson's Nar., i, 343. " Expression of face
intelligent and good natured. Both sexes have mostly round, flat faces, with Mongolian
cast." — Hooper's Tuski, p. 223.
'^ Hair. — "Allowed to hang down in a club to tbe shoulder." — Richardson's Pol. Reg.,
p. 305. "Their hair is straight, black, and coarse." — Seemaun's Voy. Herald, n, 51.
A fierce expression characterized them on the McKenzie River, which " was increased by
the long, disheveled hair flowing about their shoulders. " — Armstrong's Nar., p. 149.
^^ Beard. — '* The old men had a few gray hairs on their chins, but the young ones,
though grown up, were beardless." — Beechey's Voy., i, 322. " The possession of a beard
is very rare, but a slight mustache is not infrequent." — Seemaun's Voy. Herald, ii, 51.
*'As the men grow old they have more hair on the face than red Indians.'' — Richardson's
Nar., I, 343. " Generally an absence of beard and whiskers." — Armstrong's Xar., p. 193.
" Beard is universally wanting." — Kotzebue's Voy., i, 252. " The young men have little
beard, but some of the old ones have a tolerable show of long, gray hairs on the upper lip
and chin." — Richardson's Pol, Reg., p. 303. "All have beards." — Bell's Geography, v, 294.
Kirby affirms that in Alaska '' many of them have a profusion of whiskers and beard." —
Smith.s. Report, 1S04, p. 416.
220 ANTHROPOLOGICAi SURVEY IN ALASKA fETH. ann. 46
Simpson, 1875 : «=
Tliese people are by no means the dwarfish race they were formerly sup-
posed to be. In stature they are not inferior to many other races and are
robust, muscular, and active, inclining ratlier to spareness than corpulence.
The tallest individual was found to be 5 feet 10% inches, and the shortest
5 feet 1 inch. The heaviest man weighed 195 pounds, and the lightest 12.5
pounds. The individuals weighed and measured were taken indiscriminately
as they visited the ship, and were all supposed to have attained their full
stature. Their chief muscular strength is in the back, which is best displayed
in their games of wrestling. The shouldeis are square, or rather raised,
making the neck appear shorter than it really is, and the chest is deep : but
in strength of arm they can not compete with our sailors. The hand is
small, short, broad, and rather thick, and the thumb api)ears short, giving
an air of clumsiness in handling anything; and the power of grasping is not
great. The lower limbs are in good proportion to the body, and the feet,
like the hands, are short and broad with a high instep. Considering their
frequent occupations as hunters, they do not excel in speed nor in jumping
over a height or a level space, but they display great agility in leaping to
kick with both feet together an object hanging as high as the chin, or even
above the head. In walking, their tread is firm and elastic, the step short
and quick ; and the toes being turned outward and the knee at each advance
inclining in the same direction, give a certain peculiarity to their gait difficult
to describe.
The hair is sooty black, without gloss, and coarse, cut in an even line across
the forehead, but allowed to grow long at the back of the head and about the
oars, whilst the crown is cropped close or shaven. The color of the skin is
a light yellowish brown, but variable in shade, and in a few instances was
observed to be very dark. In the young, the complexion is comparatively fair,
presenting a remarkably healthy sunburnt appearance, through which the
rosy hue of the cheeks is visible ; before middle life, however, this, from
exposure, gives place to a weather-beaten appearance, so that it is difficult to
guess their ages.
The face is flat, broad, rounded, and commonly plump, the cheek bones high,
the forehead low, but broad across the eyebrows, and narrowing upwards;
the whole head becomes somewhat pointed toward the crown. The nose is
short and flat, giving an appearance of cc>n.siderable space between the eyes.
The eyes are brown, of different shades, usually dark, seldom if ever alto-
gether black, and generall.v have a soft expression ; some have a peculiar
glitter, which we call gipsylike. They slope slightly upwards from the nose,
and have a fold of .skin stretching across the inner angle to the upper eyelid,
most perceptible in chiUlhnod, which gives to some individuals a cast of coun-
tenance almost perfectly Chinese. The eyelids seem tumid, opening to only a
moderate extent, and the slightly arched eyebrows scarcely project beyond
them. The ears are l)y no means large, but frequently stand out sideways.
The mouth is prominent and large, and the lips, e.specially the lower one,
rather thick and protruding. The jawbones are strong, supporting remark-
ably firm and commonly resiular teeth. In the youthful these are in general
white, but toward middle age they have lost their enamel and become black
or are worn down to the gums. The incisors of the lower jaw do not pass be-
hind those of the upper, but meet edge to edge, so that by the time an indi-
"' Simpson, .John, Observations on the We.stern Eskimo and the Country They Inhabit.
In A Selection of P.ipers on .\rctic Geography and Ethnology, Pres. by the Roy. Geogr.
Soc, London, 1875, pp. 23S-24G.
hkdliCka] physical ANTHROPOLOGY 221
vidual arrives at maturity, the opposing surfaces of the eye and front teeth
are perfectly flat, independently of the wear they are subjected to in every
possible way to assist the hands. The expression of the countenance is one
of hal)itual good humor in the great majority of both sexes, hut is a good deal
marred in the men by wearing heavy lip ornaments. * * *
While young the women are generally well formed and good looking, having
good eyes and teeth. To a few, who besides possessed something of the Circas-
sian cast of features, was attributed a certain degree of brunette beauty.
Their hands and feet are small, and the former delicate in the young, but soon
become rough and coarse when the household cares devolve upon them. Their
miivements are awkward and ungainly, and though capal)le of making long
journeys on foot, it is almost painful to see many <if them walk. Unlike the
men. they shuffle along commonly a little sideways, with the toes turned in-
wards, stooping slightly forward as if carrying a burden, and their general
appearance is not enhanced l)y the coat being made large enough to accom-
modate a child on the back, whilst the tight-fitting nether garment only serves
to display the deformity of their bow legs. * * *
The physical constitution of both sexes is strong, and they bear exposure
during the coldest weather for many hours together without appearing incon-
venienced, further than occasional frostbites on the cheeks. They also show
great endurance of fatigue dnring their journeys in the summer, particularly
that part in which they require to drag the family boat, ladeii with their sum-
mer tent and all their moveables, on a sledge over the ice.
Extreme longevity is probabl.y not unknown among them ; but as they take
no heed to number the years as they pass, they can form no guess of their
own ages, invariabl.v stating " they have many years." Judging altogether
from app<'arance. a man whom we saw in the neighborhood of Kotzebue Sound
could not be less than 80 years ef age. He had long been confined to his bed
and appeared quite in his dotage. There was another at Point Barrow, whose
wrinkled face, silvery hair, toothless gums, and shrunk limbs indicated an age
nothing short of 75. This man died in the month of April, 1853, and had paid
a visit to the ship only a few days before, when his intellect seemed unim-
paired, and his vision wonderfully acute for his time of life. There is another
still alive, who is said to be a few years older.
1877, Dall : ^^
Page 9 : The Orarians are distinguished * * * by a light fresh yellow
complexion, fine color, broad build, scaphocephalic head, great cranial capacity,
and obliquity of the arch of the zygoma.
Page 17: The Ekogmut inhabit the Yukon delta from about Klpniuk to Pasto-
lik * * *. Tlieir most noticeable personal peculiarity consists in their hairy
bodies and strong beards.
1884, Hooper : "
About 3,000 Innuits inhabit the northwest coast of America, from the Col-
ville River, on the east, to Bering Strait, including the islands therein, on the
west. Many of these came under my observation while cruisin;; in the Arctic
Ocean in command of the Corwin.
In apiJearance they are tall and muscular, many being 6 feet in height, and
some were seen that would exceed that even. Their peculiar dress gives them
" Dall, W. H., Tribe.> of the Extreme Nortliwest. Contribution to Nortli American
Ethnology, i, Washington, 1877.
" Hooper, C. L,, Report of cruise of the revenue steamer Conein, 1881. Washington,
1884, p. 101.
222 ANTHROPOLOGICAL, SURVEY IN" ALASKA [bth. ann. 4G
a squat appearance, anil their stature seems less than it is in reality. The
women are much shorter than the men, but both sexes are strong and active,
though not equal in these respects to the Tchuktchis and other reindeer tribes
of Siberia.
The face of the Innuit is broad below the eyes, the forehead is narrow and
receding, the chin and lower jaw broad and heavy. The nose is usually broad
and flattened, but not always ; occasionally one is seen whose features are well
formed and handsome. In the young children this is the almost invariable
rule ; many of them are really beautiful. The eyes are .small and black, and
appear to be slightly oblique, and for this reason, perhaps nmre than any other,
they have been classed with the Mongolidce. They have large mouths, thick,
loosely hanging lips, and fine, strong teeth. These, however, from eating raw
food, are usually vei-y much worn. The labrets worn in the lips are hideous-
looking things, made of bone, glass, stone, ivory, or in fact anything within the
reach of the native which can be worked into the requisite shape.
They have rather light skin, very different from the Indians of the plains;
and in this also they differ from the Tchuktchis, being much lighter, and when
cleansed from the dirt which usually covers them, and freed from the sunburn
and tan due to long exposure, they become quite fair. Tbey have small, well-
formed hands and feet, much smaller in proportion than white men. This was
particularly noticeable when buying boots and mittens from them for our
use ; only the langest sizes made by them could be used at all. They are gen-
erally without beard, but as the men grow old, they sometimes have a thin,
straggling mustache and beard, but it is never full and regular. The hair is
coarse and black.
1885, Ray: ^'
Pages 37-38: The following table will .show that physically the Inyu of
North American coast does not conform to the typical idea of the Eskimo.
They are robust, healthy i)eople, fairer than tlie North American Indian, with
brown eyes and straight black hair. The men are beardless until they attain
the age of from 20 to 25 years, and even then it is very light and scattering,
and is always clipped close in the winter; at this season they also cut off
their eyebrows and tonsure their crown like a priest, with bangs over their
forehead. Their hands and feet are extremely small and symmetiical ; they
are graceful in their movements when unincumbered by heavy clothing.
Page 46 : Physically both sexes are very strong and possess great powers of
endurance.
1888, Murdoch : <■'"
In stature these people are of a medium height, robust, and muscular, inclin-
ing rather to spareness than cnrpulence, though the fullness of the face and the
thick fur clothing often gives the impression of the latter. There is, however,
considerable individual variation among them in this respect. The women are
as a rule shorter than the men. occasionally almost dwarfish, though some
women are taller than many of the men. The tallest man observed measured
5 feet 91/0 inches and the shortest 4 feet 11 inches. The tallest woman was
5 feet 3 inches in height and the shortest 4 feet V2 inch. The heaviest man
weighed 204 pounds and the lightest 126 pounds. One woman weighe<l 192
pounds and the shortest woman was also the lightest, weighing only 100
" Ray, P. H., Ethnographic sketch of the natives. Report of the International Polar
Expedition to Point Barrow, Alaska. Washington, 1885.
""Murdoch, .1., Ethnological results of the Point Barrow expedition. Ninth Ann. Kept
Bur. Ethn., 1887-88, pp. 33-39. Washington, 1892.
hedliOka] physical ANTHROPOLOGY 223
pounds. The hands and feet are small and well shaped, though the former
soon become distorted and roughened by work. We did not observe the pecu-
liar breadth of hands noticed by Doctor Simp.sun, nor is the shortness of the
thumb which he mentions sufficient to attract attention. Their feet are so
small that only one of our party, who is much below the ordinary size, was
able to wear the boots made by the natives for themselves. Small and delicate
hands and feet appear to be a univer,-;al characteristic of the Eskimo race and
have been mentioned by most observers from Grei'nlaud to Alaska.
The face is broad, flat, and round, with high cheek bones and rather low
forehead, broad across the brow and narrowing above, while the head is some-
what pointed toward the crown. The peculiar shape of the head is somewhat
masked by the way of wearing the hair and is best seen in the skull. The
nose is short, with little or no bridge — few Eskimo were able to wear our
spring eyeglasses — and broad, esj>ecially across the alie nasa>, with a peculiar,
rounded, somewhat bulbous tip, and large nostrils. The eye.s are horizontal,
with rather full lids and are l)ut slightly sunken below the level of the face.
The mouth is large and the lips full, especially tlie under one. The teeth are
naturally large, and in youth are white and generally regular, but by middle
age they are generally worn down to flat-crowned stumps, as is usual among
the Eskimo. The color of the skin is a light yellowish brown, with often con-
siderable ruddy color on the cheeks and lips. There apiiears to be much natural
variation in the complexion, some women being nearly as fair as European.s',
while other individuals seem to have naturally a coppery color. In most cases
th£ complexion appears darker than it really is from the effects i^f exposure
to the weather. All sunburn very easily, especially in the spring, when there
is a strong reflection from the snow.
The old are much wrinkled, and they frequently suffer from watery eyes,
with large sacks under them, which begin to form at a comparatively early
age. There is considerable variation in features, as well as complexion, among
them, even in cases where there seems to be no suspicion of mixed blood.
There were several men among them with decided aquiline noses and some-
thing of a Helirew cast of countenance. The eyes are of various shades of
dark brown — two pairs of lisht hazel eyes were observed — and are often
handsome. The hair is black, perfectly straight, and very thick. With the men
it is generally coarser than with the women, who sometimes have very long
and silky hair, though it generally does not reach much below the shoulders.
The eyebrows are thin and the beard scanty, growing mostly upon the upper
lip and chin and seldom appearing under the age of 20. In this they re-
semble most Eskimo. Back, however, siwaks of the " luxuriant beards and
flowing mustaches " of the Eskimo of the Great FLsh River. Some of the
older men have rather heavy black mustaches, but there is much variation
In this respect. The upix-r part of the body, as much as is commonly exposed
in the house, is remarkably free from hair. The general expression is good
humored and attractive.
The males, even when very young, are remarkable for their graceful and
dignified carriage. The body is held erect, with the shoulders square and
chest well thrown out, the knees straight, and the feet firmly planted on the
ground. In walking they move with long swinging elastic strides, the toes
well turned out and the arms swinging. * * *
I should say that they walked like well-built athletic white men. The women,
on the other hand, although possessing good physiques, are .singularly un-
graceful in their movements. They walk at a sort of shuflling half trot, with
the toes turned in, the body leaning forward, and the arms hanging awkwardly.
224 ANTHROPOLOGICAL, SUEVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 46
A noticeable thing about the women is the remarkable flexibility of the
body and limbs and the great length of time they can stand in a stooping
posture. * * * Both men and women have a very fair share of muscular
strength. Some of the women especially showed a iwwer of carrying heavy
loads superior to most white men. We were able to make no other comparisons
of their strength with ours. Their power of endurance is very great, and
both sexes are capable of making long distances on foot. Two men some-
times spend 24 hours tramping tbrou.i;h the rough ice in search of seals, and
we knew of instances where small parties made jnurneys of 50 or 75 miles on
foot without stopping to sleep.
The women are not prolific. Although all the adults are or have been
married, many of them are childless, and few have more than two children.
One woman was known to have at least four, but investigations of this sort
were rendered extremely difficult by the universal custom of adoption. Doctor
Simpson heard of a " rare ease " where one woman had borne seven children.
We heard of no twins at either village, though we obtained the Eskimo word
for twins.
1890, Murdoch : "
The people who live on the extreme northwest corner of our continent are
far from being an ugly or an ill-made race. Though they are not tall — a man
of 5 feet 10 inches is a tall man among them — they are well proportioned,
broad shouldered, and deep chested. The men, as a rule, are particularly well
" set up," like well-drilled soldiers and walk and stand with a great deal of
grace and dignity.
The women do not have such good figures, but are inclined to slouchiness.
They are seldom inclined to be fleshy, though their plump, round faces, along
with their thick fur clothing, often give them the appearance of being fat.
They generally have round, full faces, with rather high cheek bones, small,
rounded noses, full lips, and small chins. Still, you now and then see a person
with an oval face and aquiline nose. Many of the men are very good looking,
and some of the young women are exceedingly pretty. Their complexion is a
dark brunet, often with a good deal of bright color on the cheeks and especially
on the lips. They sunburn very much, especially in the spring, when the glare
of the sun is reflected from the snow. They have black or dark-brown e.ves and
abundant black hair. The women's hair is often long and silky. When they
are young they have white and regular teeth, but these are worn down to
stumps before middle life is reached. Cheerful and merry faces are the rule.
1890, Kelly :««
Personal appearance. — There are three types observable among the Arctic
Eskimos of Alaska. The tall, cadaverous natives of Kangoot. Seelawik, Koovuk,
and Kikiktowruk, on Kotzebue Sound, who live on fish, ptarmigans, and mar-
mots. They always have a hungry look and habitually wear a grin of fiendish
glee at having circumvented an adverse fate. There is a tendency among these
people to migrate north.
Then there is the tall, strongly knit type of the Nooatoks, a gigantic race, of
a splendid physique that would be remarkable in any part of the world.
°' Murdocb, J., Dress and physique of the Point Barrow Eskimos, Popul. Sci. Montb.,
Dec., 1890, 222-223.
■"^ Kolly, J, W,, Arctic Eskimos iu Alaska and Siberia, Revised and edited by Sheldon
Jackson. Bull. No. 3, Soc. Alaskan Nat. Hist, and Etbnol,, Sitka, 1890, p, 15.
HEDLKlKAl PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 225
Rugged as the mouutains amons which they live, vigorous and courageous,
they stop at nothing but the impossible to accomplish a desired end. Their
food supply i.s the reindeer, mountain sheep, ptarmigans, and fish. There are
many of the coast natives of this type, but they lack the healthy glow and the
indomitable will of the Nooatoks.
The third type is the short, stumpy one, probably that of the old Eskimo be-
fore the admixture with southern tribes, now found on the Arctic coast. * * *
The Eskimos have coarse, black hair, some with a tinge of brown. Many of
the coast people of both sexes are bald from scrofulous eruptions Males have
the crown of the head closely cropped, so that reindeer may not see the waving
lock.s when the hunter creeps behind bunch grass. They have black eyes and
high cheek bones. The bones of the face are better protected from the severity
of the climate by a thicker covering of flesh than southern races.
Among the coast people the nose is broad and flat, with very litt'e or no ridge
between the eyes. The adult males have short mustaches, and some of the
elder ones — more noticeable in the interior — ^have rough, scraggy beards. Gen-
erally their beard is very scant, and most of them devote otuerwise Idle
hours to pulling out the hairs.
1900, Nelson:"^
The Eskimo from Bering Strait to the lower Yukon are fairly well-built
people, averaging among the men about 5 feet 2 or 3 inches in height. The
Yukon Eskimo and those living southward from that river to the Kuskokwim
are, as a rule, shorter and more squarely built. The Kuskokwim people are
darker of complexion than those to the northward, and have rounder features.
The men commonly have a considerable growth of hair on their faces, be-
coming at times a thin beard 2 or 3 inches in length, with a well-developed
mustache. No such development of beard was seen elsewhere In the territory
visited.
The people in the coast region between the mouths of the Kuskokwim and the
Yukon have peculiarly high cheek bones and shaip chins, which unite to give
their faces a curiously pointed, triangular appearance. At the village of
Kaialigamut 1 was Impressed by the strong development of the superciliary
ridge. From a point almost directly over the pupil of the eye and extending
thence inward to the median line of the forehead is a strong bony r'dge cau.s-
ing the brow to stand out sharply. From the outer edge of tliis the skull
appears as though beveled away to the ears, giving the temporal area a con-
siderable enlargement beyond that usually shown. This curious development
of the skull is rendered still more striking by the fact that the bridge of the
nose is low, as usual among these people, so that the shelf-like projection of
the brow stands out in strong relief. It is most strongly marked among the
men and appears to be characteristic at this place. Elsewhere ia this district
it was noted only rarely here and there.
All of the people in the district about Capes Vancouver and Romanzof, anil
thence to the Yukon mouth, are of unusually light complexion. Some of the
women have a pale, slightly yellowish color, with pink cheeks, differing but
little in complexion from that of a sallow woman of Caucasian blood. This
light complexion is so exceptionally striking that wherever they travel these
people are readily distinguished from other Eskimo, and before I visited their
territory I had learned to know them by their complexion whenever they came
to St. Michael.
69 Nel8on, Edward W., The Eskimo about Bering Strait. Eighteenth Ann. Rept. Bur.
Amer. Ethn., Washington, 1900. pp. 26-29.
226 AJJTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [kth. axn. 40
The people of the district just" mrntioned are nil very short and squarely
built. Inland from Cape Vancouver lies the flat marshy country about Big
Lake, which is situated between the Kuskoknim and the Yukon. It is a
well-jwpulated district and its inhabitants differ from those near the coast
at the capes referred to, in being taller, more slender, and having more
squarely cut features. They also differ strikingly from any other E.skimo
with whom I came in contact, except those on Kowak River, in having the
bridge of the nose well developed and at times sufficiently prominent to sug-
gest the aquiline no.se of our southern Indian tribes.
The Eskimo of the Diome<le Islands in Bering Strait, as well as those of
East Cape and Meehigme and Plover Bays on the Siberian coast, and of St.
Lawrence Island are tall, strongly built people and are generally similar in
their physical features. These are characterized by the unusual heaviness of
the lower part of the face due to the very .square and massive lower jaw, which,
combined with broad, high cheek bones and flattened nose, produces a wide,
flat face. These features arc frequently accompanied with a l<iw retre-ating
forehead, producing a decidedly repulsive physiognomy. The bridge of the nose
is so low and the cheek hones so heavy that a profile view will frequently show
only the tip of the person's nose, the eyes and upper portion of the nose being
completely hidden by the prominent outline of the cheek. Their eyes are less
oblique than is common among the people living southward from the Yukon
mouth. Among the people at the northwestern end of St. Lawrence Island
there is a greater range of pliyslognomy than was noted at any other of the
Asiatic localities.
The Point Hope people on the American coast have heavy jaws and well-
developed superciliary ridges. At Point Barrow the men are remarkable for
(he irregularity of their features, amounting to a positive degree of ugliness,
which is increased and rendered specially prominent by the expression produced
by the short, tightly drawn upper lip, the projecting lower lip, and the small
beady eyes. The women and children of this place are in curious contrast,
having rather pleasant features of the usual type.
The Eskimo from Upper Kowak and Noatak Rivers who were met at the
summer camp on Hotham Inlet are notable for the fact that a considerable
number of them have hook noses and nearly all have a cast of countenance
very similar to that of the Yukon Tieinif. They are a larger and more robustly
built people than these Indians, however, and speak the Eskimo language.
They wear labrets, practice the tonsure, and claim to be Eskimo. * * *
Among them was seen one man having a mop of coarse curly hair, almost
negroid in character. The same feature was observed in a number of men and
women on the Siberian coast between East Cape and Plover Bay. This latter
is undoubtedly the result of the Chukchi-Eskimo mixture, and in the case of
the man seen at Hotham Inlet the same result had been brought about by the
Eskimo-Indian combination. Among the Eskimo south of Bering Strait on the
American coast not a single instance of this kind was observed. The age of
the individuals having this curly hair renders it quite improbable that it came
from an admixture of blood with foreign voyagers, since some of them must
have been born at a time when vessels were extremely rare along these shores.
As a further argument against this curly hair having come from white men,
I may add that I saw no trace of it among a number of people having partly
Caucasian blowl. As a general thing, the Eskimo of the region described, have
small hands and feet and the features are oval in outline, rather flat and with
.slightly oblique eyes.
Children and young girls have round faces and often are very pleasiint and
attractive in feature, the angular race characteristics becoming prominent after
hkdliCka]
PHYSICAX, ANTHKOPOLOGY 227
the individuals approach manhood. The women age rapidly, and only a very
small proportion of the people live to an advanced age.
The Malemut and the people of Kaviak Peninsula, including those of the
islands in Bering Strait are tall, active, and remarkably well built. Among
them it is common to see men from 5 feet 10 inches to 6 feet tall and of pro-
porti(mate build. I should judge the average among them to be nearly or quite
equal in height to the whites.
Among the coast Eskimos, as a rule, the legs are short and poorly developed,
while the body is long with disproportionately developed dorsal and lumbar
muscles, due to so much of their life being passed in the kaiak.
The Eskimo of the Big Lake district, south of the Yukon, and from the Kaviak
Peninsula, as well as the Malemut about the head of Kotzebue Sound, are on
the contrary very finely proportioned and athletic men who can not be equaled
among the Indians of the Yukon region. * * * There were a number of
half-blood children among the Eskimo, resulting from the intercourse with
people from vessels and others, who generally show their Caucasian blood by
large, finely shaped, and often remarkably beautiful brown eyes. The number
of these mixed bloods was not very great.
1905, Jackson : "
The Eskimos of Alaska are a much finer race physically than their kindred
of Greenland and Labrador. In the extreme north, at Point Barrow, and
along the coast of Bering Sea they are of medium size. At Point Barrow the
average height of the males is 5 feet 3 inches and average weight 153 pounds;
of the women, 4 feet 11 inches and weight 13.5 pounds. On the Nushagak
River the average weight of the men is from 150 to 167 jwunds. From Cape
Prince of Wales to Icy Cape along the Arctic Coast and on the great inland
rivers emptying into the Arctic Ocean they are a large race, many of them
being 6 feet and over in height.'^ They are lighter in color and fairer than
the North American Indian, have black and brown eyes, black hair, some
with a tinge of brown, high cheek bones, fleshy fiices, small hands and feet,
and good teeth. The men have thin beards.
1916, Hawkes:"
The Alaskan Eskimo are a taller and more symmetrical people than their
brethren of the central and eastern districts. They lack that aijpearance of
stoutness and squatness inherent in the eastern stock, and for proportion and
development of the various parts of the body they do not compare unfavorably
with Indians and whites. It is not unusual to tiud in an Alaskan Eskimo
village several men who are 6 feet tall, with magnificent shoulders and arms
and bodily strength in proportion. The usual height, however. Is about 168
centimeters for men, which is some 10 centimeters above the height of the
eastern Eskimo. * * * xhe average for women among the western Eskimo
is 158 centimeters, which approximates the height of the men in the Hudson
Bay region, 158 centimeters (Boas). The female type in Alaska is taller and
slimmer than in the east, and the width of the face is considerably less.
Eskimo women of large stature are often seen in the northern section of
™ Jackson, Sbeldon, Our barbarous Eskimos in northern Alaska. The Metropol. Mag.,
Vol. xxn. New York. .luce. 1905, pp. 257-271.
•' Either a bad misprint or bad error. — A. H.
'- Hawkes, Ernest William. Skeleta? measurements and observations of the Point Barrow
Eskimo, with comparisons with other Eskimo groups. Am. AntUrop., n. s. xviii. No. 2,
pp. 206-207, Lancaster, 1916.
228 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ann. 46
Alaska. The individual variation here is more conspicuous tlian in Labrador
or Hudson Bay.
1923, Jenness : "
In hi.s report on tile Copper Eskimos, D. Jenness gives excellent descriptive
notes on tliis group vsrith references to others. These notes, too voluminous to
be transcribed, may well be consulted in these connections.
Older Anthropometric Data on the Western Eskimo
stature and other measurements on the living
• The earliest actual measurements of the living among the western
Eskimo are those given in Captain Beechey's Narrative (1832, p.
226) , where we read that of the Eskimo of Cape Thompson (north of
Kotzebue Sound) "the tallest man was 5 feet 9 inches (175.3 centi-
meters), the tallest woman 5 feet 4 inches (162.6 centimeters) in
height." As seen before, Beechey also stated that the stature of the
Eskimo increases from the east to the west.
In 1881-82, Lieutenant Ray collects and in 1885 reports evidently
careful measurements of 51 men and 30 women from the villages of
Uglaamie, at Cape Smythe, now Barrow, and Nuwuk, on Point
Barrow.'* An abstract of the data shows as follows:
Average height : Male. 5 feet 3V{. inches (161.3 centimeters) ; female. 4 feet 11%
inches (151.8 centimeters).
Average weight : Male, 153% pounds ; female, 135% pounds.
Talle.st male: 5 feet 8% inches (174.6 centimeters).
Tallest female: 5 feet 3 inches (160 centimeters).
Shortest male: 4 feet 11 inches (149.9 centimeters).
Shortest female: 4 feet % inch (123.2 centimeters).
Weight : Male, 126 to 204 pounds ; female, 106 to 172 pounds.
In 1892, in connection with the preparation of the anthropological
exhibits for the World Exposition at Chicago, an extensive effort was
made under the direction of Frederick W. Putnam and Franz Boas
to secure, by the help of a group of specially instructed students,
physical data on many tribes of the American aborigines, and this
included a contingent of the western Eskimo. An abstract of the
results was reported by Boas in 1895." The locality where the
Eskimo were measured is not given, but it was most likely Nome
or St. Michael Island. Thirty-four men gave the high (for the
Eskimo) average of 165.8 centimeters, an unstated number of
women an equally elevated average of 155.1 centimeters. No details
" Jenness, D., Physic.il characteristics of the Copper Eskimos. Ropt. Canail. Arct. Exp.
1913-1918. Ottawa, 1923, p. 38.
" Ray, Lieut. P. H., Report of the International Polar Expedition to Point Barrow,
Alaslia. Washington, 1885. p. 50.
'°Zur Anthropolo),'ie der Nordamerikanischen Indianer. Verh. Beii. Ges. Antbrop.,
Sitz. Mai 18, 1895 (with Z. Ethnol. for same year).
HEDLlfKA]
PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
229
are given. There is also given the mean and distribution of the
cephalic index on 114 living western Eskimo of both sexes. (On
chart, p. 395, the number is 141.) The mean index was 79.2. There
are again, as under Stature, no details as to locality, and none
could be obtained from the author. '
In 1901 Deniker, in his Races of Man (p. 580), reports the stature
of 85 Eskimo of Alaska, doubtless males, as 163 centimeters.
There are no details, no references, and I have not been able to trace
the source of the measurement.
During the years 1897-1899 A. J. Stone made an extended jour-
ney along a portion of the upper Yukon and through parts of
northwestern Alaska and the Mackenzie River basin, for the Amer-
ican Museum of Natural History. On this journey he made some
measurements of Indian and Eskimo, and these were published in
1901 by Fi-anz Boas.'" The Eskimo measured were the " Nunatag-
miut " (11 males, 5 females), of the Noatak River, Alaska, and the
"Koukpaguiiut," (12 males, G females), east of the mouth of the
Mackenzie. The Noataks, who alone interest us more closely here,
gave the relatively high (for Eskimo) stature of 167.9 centimeters in
the men and 155.6 centimeters in the women. The number of subjects
is small and there may possibly have been some unconscious selec-
tion ; yet it is clear that in this group there are numerous fairly tall
individuals.
Stone's Data on the Noatak Rrer Eskimo
Stature
Stretch of arms
Height of shoulder.
Length of arm
Height sitting
Widthof shoulders.
Length of head
Width of head
Width of face
Height of face
Males (11)
Females (5)
167.9
155. 6
173.0
159. 2
139. 7
128.4
73.9
66.0
86.8
81. 8
38.0
34. 2
18.9
18. 1
15. 45
14. 26
15. 57
14. 46
12.84
11. 98
Height of nose
Width of nose
Index of stretch of
a rms
Index of arm
Index of height
sitting
Index of width of
shoulders
Cephalic index
Males (11) Females (5)
5. 63
3. 76
103. 1
52. 6
22. 6
81. 6
5. 3
3.34
102. 4
42. 6
52.4
22
78.8
™ A. J. Stone's Measurements of Natives of the Northwestern Territories. Bull- Am.
Mus. Nat. Hist., 1901, xiv, pp. 53-68.
230
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA
[ETH. ANN. 46
In addition, Doctor Jenness, in 1913, measured 13 adult male Point
Hope Eskimo for stature, head length, and head breadth." He
obtained the following records :
stature
Head
length
HAd
i breadth
Cephalic
index
Stature
Head
length
Head
breadth
Cephalic
index
160.5
19. 7
15. 1
76. 6
174. 3
18. 6
15. 1
81. 1
168. 5
19.6
14.7
75.0
158. 3
18.7
15. 4
82.3
167. 3
19. 4
14.5
74.7
168.2
19.2
16.3
84. 9
162. 9
21.0
14.6
69.5
167.3
18.7
15.9
85.0
162.4
19. 2
14.5
75.5
167.8
19.5
14. 9
76. 4
Means '
170.2
18.8
14.7
78.2
170. 4
18.8
14.8
78.7
168.2
19.28
15.06
78. 1
168. 3
19. 4
15.3
78.8
^ By present writer.
Doctor Jenness '^ also gives useful data on the stature and cephalic
index of living Eskimo from other localities which, with the addition
of the sources and a slightly different arrangement, are here ref)ro-
duced :
Statube
Place
Men
Cases Stature
Women
Cases Stature
Smith Sound (Steensby)
S. W. Greenland (Hansen)
Labrador (Duckworth and Pain)
Smith Sound (HrdHcka) '
S. E. Greenland (Hansen)
Point Barrow (Ray)
Hudson Bay (South Island and Aivilik)
(S. I. 35, Tocher; A. 9, Boas)
Mackenzie Delta (Jenness)
N. E. Greenland (Han,sen)
Coronation Gulf (Jenness)
Iglulik, Hudson Bay (Parry)
Point Hope (Jenness)
Mackenzie Delta (Stone)
Noatak River (Stone)
8
21
11
3
22
51
44
4
31
82
20
13
12
11
157.4
157. 6
157.7
157.7
160. 4
161. 5
162. 0
162. 2
164. 7
164. 8
166.0
166. 5
167.5
167. 9
10
24
10
23
28
12
15
42
20
145.4
151. 8
149. 7
152. 9
153.6
151. 8
155. 1
156. 4
153.7
151.5
155.5
1 Added from author's Anthropology ot Central and Smith Sound Eskimo, 1910, 228; the stature of one
woman was 146.7.
"Physical Characteristics of the Copper Eskimo. Rep. Canad. Arch. Eiped. 1913-1918, Ottawa, 1923,
Introd., also p. B37.
" Kep. Canad. Arct. Exped., 1913-1918, B50.
hrdliOkaJ
PHYSICAX, ANTHROPOLOGY
Cephalic Index '
231
Men
Womea
Cases
Indei
Cases
Indei
Mackenzie Delta (Stone)
12
4
22
11
35
82
31
73.9
76. 1
75.7
77.0
77.2
77.6
77.8
Mackenzie Delta (Jenness) . _ _
6
23
10
75. 2
75.0
Labrador (Duckworth and Pain)
74.5
Coronation Gulf (Jenness) _ _-
42
15
10
24
76. 6
Northeast Greenland (Hansen) __ _ _ _.
76. 5
Smith SoiinH (Stppnshv)
8 ' 78. 0
21 j 78. 1
13 i 2 78. 3
11 1 81.6
1
77. 4
Southwest Greenland (Hansen)
76. 8
Point Hope (Jenness)
Noatak River (Stone) _ _ _ _ . _
5
78. 8
> Physical Characteristics of the Copper Eskimo. Rep. Caoad. Arct. Eiped., 1913-191S, Ottawa. 1923
p. B55.
' The totals of the measurements give 75./ — X. H.
THE SKULL
The first western Eskimo skull collected for .scientific purposes
was apparently that of a female St. Lawrence Islander. It was
taken from the rocks of the island by the Kotzebue party in 1817.
It was reported upon j^hrenologically in 1822 by Gall.'**
In 1839 Morton, in his "Crania Americana" (p. 248), gives
measurements and the illustration of a western Eskimo skull from
Icy Cape, collected by Dr. A. Collie, surgeon of H. M. S. BJossoni.
The principal measurements of this evidently female skull were:
Length, 17.02 centimeters; breadth, 12.70; height, 12.70. Cephalic
index, 7^.6.
In 1862"' and 1863 «" Daniel Wilson reports briefly on six
Tchuktchi skulls, which were probably those of Asiatic E.skimo. He
says:
M.v opportunities for examining Esquimaux crania liave been sufficient to
furnish me with very satisfactory data for forming an opinion on the true
Arctic .sliull form. In addition to the measurements of 38 slculLs, * * *
I have recently compared and carefully measured six Tchuktchi [probably
Asiatic coast Eskimo] skulls, in the collection of the Smithsonian Institution,
exhumed from the burial place of a village called Tergnyune, on the island of
Arikamcheche, at Glassnappe Harbor, west of Bering Strait, and during a
" Voyagp pittoresquc autour du Monde, by Louis Choris. Paris, 1S22, pp. 15, 16.
™ Wilson, Daniel, Prehistoric man. Two vols. Lond., 1862 ; ii, pi. 15 ; 3d ed., 1876,
II, 192, 15.
*» Wilson, Daniel, Physical ethnology. Smith.sonian Report for 1862, Washington, 1863.
pp. 261-262. The measurements of the Tchuktchi are given in the Prehistoric Man,
vol. II, Table 16.
232 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ann. 46
recent visit to Philadelphia I enjoyed the advantage of examining, in company
with Dr. J. Aitken Meigs, a series of 125 [eastern] Esquimaux crania, ob-
tained liy Doctor Hayes during his Arctic journey of 18(10. The comparison
between the Tchul^tchi and the true Esquimaux skull is interesting. Without
being identical, the correspondence in form is such as their languages and
other affinities would suggest. Of the former, moreover, the number is too
few, and the derivation of all of them from one cemetery adds to the chances
of exceptional family features ; but on carefully examining the Hayes col-
lection with a view to this comparison, I found it was quite possible to select
an equal number of Esquimaux crania closely corresponding to the Tchuktchi
type, which indeed presents the most prominent characteristics of the former,
only less strongly marked.
In Prehistoric Man, Volume II, Plate XV, this author gives also
the measurements of the Icy Cape skull recorded by Morton.
The principal mean measurements of the six Tchuktchi skulls (both
sexes) were: Height, 17.60 centimeters; breadth, 13.59; height. 13.77;
cranial index, 77.3.
The next measurements on western Eskimo crania are those given
in 1867 by J. Barnard Davis {Thes. crau.). This author measured 0
skulls, 3 of which were from Port Clarence (Seward Peninsula),
2 from Kotzebue Sound, and 1 from Cape Lisburne. The measure-
ments, regrettably, are in inches. They include the greatest glabello-
occipital length, greatest breadth, height (plane of for. magn. to
vertex), height of face (chin-nasion), and breadth of face (d. bizy-
gom. max.). The cranial index of the 4 specimens identified as
male averaged 75.5 (75-76), that of the 2 females 77.5 (77-78). On
page 226 the author mentions also an artificially deformed skull
of a Koniag; this was in all probability a wrong identification for
no such deformations are known from the island (Kodiak).
In 1868 Jeffries Wyman*' published measurements of 5 skulls of
" Tsuktshi," the same as those of Daniel Wilson, and of 5 from the
Yukon River, " three of which are Mahlemuts."
The identification of the specimens was partly erroneous. The
data with corrected identification are republished by Dall (q. v.) in
1877. And the same skulls figure in all future measurements.
In 1875 Topinard*^ gives the Barnard Davis measurements in
metric form without, so far as the western Eskimo are concerned,
any additions.
The main measurements of Barnard Davis's western Eskimo skulls,
converted to metric values, follow. The sex identification in some
of the specimens is doubtful.
" Observations on Crania. Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., xi, 440-4G2. Boston, 1868.
'^■- Topinard, P., Mesures craniometriques des Esquimaux. Rev. d'Anthrop., 1873, il,
499-522.
HRDLK'KA]
PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
233
Skull
length
Breadth
Height (to
vertex)
Cranial
index
Port Clarence, male
17.8
17.8
-IS
13.45
13. 45
-14
-14
14. 2
13. 45
75. 7
Do
75. 7
Port Clarence, female .
77.6
Means of the three.. .
17. 86
13.64
13. 59
76. 4
Kotzebue Sound, male.. _
17.55
17.3
13. 2
13.45
13.45
13.7
75.4
77. 9
Kotzebue Sound, female . ..
Means of the two (probably both
females)
17. 4
13.35
13.6
76. 6
Cape Lisburne, male
18.3
14. 2
-14
77.8
The next records are those by George A. Otis, published in 1876
in the Check List of the Specimens in the Section of Anatomy of the
United States Army Medical Museum, Washington (pp. 13-15).
Aside from those on Greenland crania the author gives here the meas-
urements of 3 presumably Eskimo skulls collected by Dall ; of 2
western Eskimo skulls, no locality; and of 3 Mahlemut skulls, prob-
ably from Norton Sound (St. Michael Island). In his later (1880)
catalogue,**^ page 13. Otis adds to the above three skulls from Prince
William Sound, which, however, were more probably Indian; the
three Mahlemuts, on the other hand, are given with the Alaskan
Indians (p. 35). These data are of but little value. The Eskimo
skulls are the same Smithsonian specimens that were reported upon
in 1868 by Jeffries Wyman.
In 1878. Rae ^^ mentions some measurements or observations on
the skulls of Western Eskimo by Flower, but no records of these
could be located. Rae says:
I had the privilege of attending.' the series of admirable lectures so ably
given by Professor Flower at the Royal College of Surgeons a few weeks ago
on the " Comparative Anatomy of Man," from which I derived much useful
information and on one point very considerable food for thought.
I allude to the wonderful difference in form exhibited between the .skulls of
the Eskimos from the neighborhood of Bering Strait, and of those inhabiting
Greenland, the latter being extremely dolichocephalic, whilst the former are
the very opposite — brachycepUalic, the natives of the intermediate coast, from
the Coppermine River eastward, having mesocephalic heads.
*" List of the specimens In the Anatomical Section of the Army Medical Museum.
Washington, 18S0.
** Rae, John, Eskimo skulls. J. Anthrop. Inst. Gr. Brit., London, 1878, vii, 142.
88253°
234
ANTHROPOLOGICAL, SURVEY IN ALASKA
[ETH. ANN. 46
In 1879 Lucien Carr, in his " Observations on the Crania from the
Santa Barbara Islands, California'"*^ (p. 281), gives erroneously
Otis's measurements of Aleut skulls as those of " Alaskan Eskimo."
Meanwhile W. H. Dall has published (1877) his monograph on
the " Tribes of the Extreme Northwest," *" in which he includes
Wyman's and also some of Otis's data on the Eskimo (and Aleut)
skulls from Alaska and Asia. The Tshuktshi are now classed as
Asiatic Eskimo, the Mahlemuts as Eskimo from St. Michael Island.
The total number of skulls described in the former series is 11, in
the latter series 6 (of Aleuts the number of skulls measured is 27
adults and 7 children). The means of the princijDal measurements
of the Eskimo series, both sexes together, are as follows :
Jeffries Wtman's and Otis's Measurements of Western Eskimo Crania
Crania (both sexes)
Length
Breadth
Height
Cranial
index
Asiatic Eskimo
(11)
17.8
(6)
17. 5
(11)
14. 1
(6)
13. 2
(7)
13. 2
(6)
13. 1
(11)
79. 3
Northwest American Eskimo.. _ . __ _
(6)
75. 1
There were also taken the weight, capacity, circumference, longi-
tudinal arch, length of the frontal, parietal, and occipital, " zygo-
matic diameter," and in two specimens of each series the facial
angle. To-day these data have but a historical value.
In 1882, Quatrefages and Hamy,*' in their " Crania ethnica "
(p. 440) give the measurements of two male Kaniagmiouts (Kodiak
Indian, A. Pinart, collector) and one female Mahlemiout. The prin-
cipal measurements of these skulls are as follows :
SkuU:
Length
Breadth
Height (bas.-
bg.)
Cranial index
Males (2) Female (1)
18.6
14. 2
14 3
76.34
17. 9
13.9
13. 2
77. 65
Nose:
Length
Breadth
Nasal index
Facial index, total
Orbital index
Males (2) Female (1)
5.9
5. 1
2.3
2.3
38.08
45.09
77.69
70. 37
92.68
90.24
In 1883 Dr. Irving C. Rosse, in his " ^ledical and Anthropological
Notes on Alaska," *** refers to his examination of a number of Eskimo
S5 Rep. U. S. Geogr. Surv. W. of 100 Mericl.. vol. vii.
»" U. S. Geog. and Gcol. Surv. Rocky Mt. Reg. Contributions to North .Vmorican Eth-
nology, I. Washington. 1877. p. 63 et seq.
"'Quatrefages, A. de, and Hamy, E. T., Crania ethnica. Paris, 1882. 438, 440.
»> Cruise of the Coiiein in 1881. Washington, 1883, p. 38.
hbdliCka]
PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
235
skulls from the St. Lawrence Island brought to the Army Medical
Museum.*** There are no measurements outside of a reference to the
capacity, but there are two excellent chromolithographs showing two
female crania, besides a number of outline drawings.
The next data on the western Eskimo skull are in rather unsatisfac-
tory condition. They are those of Boas. In his report on the "An-
throjjologie der nordamerikanischen Indianer," '"" Doctor Boas men-
tions the cranial index of the Alaska Eskimo to average 71-^ and on
page 397 he reports the same index as secured on 37 "Alaska Eskimo "
skulls, apparently of both sexes. The only note relating to these
figures is found on page 393, where it is stated that these results
proceed from measurements that had been made for the author at
the Peabody Museum, Cambridge, the American Museum, New York,
the Academy of Sciences, Philadelphia, and the United States Army
Medical Museum, Washington; and that he utilized also the measure-
ments of Barnard Davis and Otis. On 22 of the above western
Eskimo skulls there is also given the length-height index of 76.6.
There is no information as to either sex or locality. There are no
other measurements.
Deniker (1901) and later Martin (1914) repeat the data given by
Boas.
In 1890 Tarenetzky ^^ publishes measurements and observations on
four Koniag (Kodiak) skulls and one Oglemute (Aglegmute, Alaska
Peninsula). The main measurements (pp. 70-71) are:
Eoneag9«
Koneage
Koneage
Eoneage
Means ' of
the four
from
Kodiak
Island
Aglegm-
jute
{Alaska
Peninsula)
Skull:
Length
Breadth, ..
17. 1
13. S
13. 1
50. 7
4. 7
2. 4
51. 0
87.5
16. 4
15.7
14.4
95. 7
5. 3
2.5
47.1
97.6
17. 2
15.8
14.0
91. 8
5. 7
2. 6
46.6
92. 7
16. 8
14.4
13. 2
85. 7
5.9
2.3
39.0
80.9
16. 88
14.93
13. 68
88. 4
5. 40
2. 45
■i5.4
89. 7
19.0
13. 7
Height
Cranial index
Nose:
Length
Breadth
Nasal index
Orbital index
14. 1
7S. 1
5. 8
2.3
39.6
88. I
■Most if not all the Kodiak skulls are doubtless females, the Oglemute a male. Quite probably also
the Kodiak skulls are those of Aleuts and not of Eskimo.
(•By present author.
'*" Now in the Division of Physical Anthropology of the U. S. National Museum.
^'' 1895, Verb. Berliner, Ges. Anthrop. p. 3G7 et seq.
■*" Tarenetzky. Al., Beitrii^^p zur CrnnioloEcie der Ainos auf Sachalin. Meuj. Acad, imp.
Sc. St. P^tersb., 1890, XXXVII, No. 13, 1-55.
236
ANTHROPOLOGICAL, SURVEY IN ALASKA
[ITH. ANN. 46
In 1900 Sergi "^ reports on four Kodiak skulls that he examined in
Paris. Two of these are probably Aleut (or Indian). The cranial
indices were, respectively, 75.8, 78.3, 88, and 88.2.
In 1916 E. "W. Hawkes presented a thesis on the " Skeletal Measure-
ments and Observations on the Point Barrow Eskimo, with Compari-
sons from other Eskimo Groups." "- The number of skulls measured
was 27, of which 14 were identified as adult males, 5 adult females, 6
adolescents, and 2 infants. In addition there ai-e measurements by
Ealph Linton of other skeletal parts than the skull of three skeletons.
The measurements, though the first tjken by this author, have evi-
dently been taken in a painstaking manner and according to modern
methods, and are therefore of some value. An abstract of those on
the adults follows:
Principal Meastjbements of Point Babkow Ceania, by Hawkes
Vault:
Length
Breadth
Basion-bregma
height
Cranial index..
Height-length
index
Height-breadth
index
Face:
Diam.bizygom.
max
BF:BH pro-
portion
Chin-nasion
height
Alveolar point-
nasion
Males (14)
18.
91
13.
73
13.
86
73.
65
73.
U
100.
68
14.
10
102.6
(6)
13.
15
(14) 1
7.
42
Females (6)
17. 86
13.58
13. 30
7^.06
74- 45
98.01
13. 40
98. 7
(3)
11. 60
(5)
6. 80
Face. — Continued
Facial index,
total
Facial index,
upper
Nose:
Height
Breadth
Index
Orbits:
Height
Breadth
Index
Dental arch:
Length
Breadth
Index
Males (14)
Females (6)
92. 13
62.48
86.20
54.05
5. 66
5.24
2.30
2. 18
40. 69
1,1.62
3. 76
3.59
4. 13
4.05
91. 3
88.5
5.31
6.27
4.96
6.06
95. 4
96. 7
In 1923 Cameron "^ published the following data on six western
Eskimo skulls from Port Clarence, collected by the Canadian Arctic
Expedition :
»' Sergi, G., Cranl Esquimesi. Atti della societa Romana di antropologia, Roma, 1900,
VII, 2, 93-102.
"'Am. Anthrop., 1916, xTiii, 203-244.
" Cameron, John, Osteolog.v of tho westorn and central Eskimo. Rep, Canad. Arctic
Exp., 1913-1918. Ottawa, 1923. With a report on the teeth by S. G. Ritchie and J. S.
Bagnall. Table and means by the present writer.
hedmCka]
PHYSICAL .\NTHROPOLOGY
237
Poet Claeence (Sewabd Peninsula) Eskimo Crania
Vault
Nose
Length
Brpadth
Height
Cranial
index
I.«ngth
Breadth
Nasal
index
Orbital
index
Males:
18.9 -
13.9
14.3
13.25
13. 0
13.7
13.63
13. 1
14. 1
13.7
14.2
13.3
13.82
12.8
73.6
76.5
70.2
73.4
71.4
72.97
73. 1
5.9
5.3
6.0
2.5
2.5
2.2
41S.4
47.2
36. 7
86.4
18.7
85. 7
18.8
86. 4
17 8
88.9
19 2
Mean: 18.68
Female: 17.85
5.73
2.40
41.9
86.9
The last contribution to the craniology of the western Eskimo
before the present report are the data embodied in my " Catalogue
of Human Crania in the United States National Museum Collec-
tions," published in 1924.^* These data are embodied in those of the
present report.
For ready survey the old records on western Eskimo crania are
given in the following table. A sex distinction in the earlier reports
was mostly impracticable or remained doubtful.
Pbevious JVIeasueements of Westebn Eskimo Skulls
1 Icy Cape, 9 (Morton, 1839)..
6 Asiatic Eskimo {" Tschtiktchi ") :
mean (Daniel Wilson, 1862).
3 Port Clarence (Banard Davis,
1867)...
2 Kotzebue Sound, 9 (Barnard
Davis, 1867)
1 1 Asiatic Eskimo (Wyman and Otis,
1868-1876)
6N. W.Amer. Eskimo (St. Michael
Island)(Wym:mand Otis, 1868-1876).
2 Kodiak Island, cf (Quatrefages and
II amy, 18S2)
1 Kodiak, 9 (Quatrefages and Hamy,
1882)
(37 western Eskimo) " (Boas, 1896)...
4 Kodiak Island, 9 ' (Tarenetzky,
1900)
Vault
Length Breadth Height '^j^'^ei'
4 Kodiak Island, ' (Sergi, 1900)
14 Point Barrow, cf (Hawkes, 1916)..
5 Point Banow, 9 (Hawkes, 1916)...
5 Port Clarence, & (Cameron, 1923)..
1 Port Clarence, 9 (Cameron, 1923)..
17.02
17.60
17.86
17.40
17.80
17.50
18.60
17.90
16.88
18.91
17.86
18.68
17.85
12.70
13.59
13.64
13.36
14.10
13.20
14.20
13.90
14.93
13.73
13.68
13.63
13.10
12.70
13.77
13.59
13.60
13.20
13.10
14.30
13.20
13.1
13.86
13.30
13.82
12.80
7i.e
77. t
76. i
76.6
79. S
75.1
76. SS
77.65
(77)
88. i
2:7?./
2 : 88.1
7S.65
76.1
73
73.1
Nose
Length I Breadth Index
6.9
5.1
5.66
5.24
6.73
2.3
2.3
2.30
2.18
2.40
iS.l
iS.i
40.7
il.6
il.9
Orbital
index
S9.7
91. S
83.5
86.9
a No details; series comprises specimens measured by Wyman, Otis, and Barnard Davis.
" Probably Aleuts, not Eskimo.
' Not the same with those of Tarenetzky; two probably Aleut.
■" No. 1 : The Eskimo, Alaska and Related Indians, Northeastern Asiatics. Proc. U. S.
Nat. Mus.. 1924. Lxiii ; spp.. 51 pp.
238 anthropologicaii sxjevey in alaska [eth, ann. 46
Present Data on the Western Eskimo
THE LI\1XG
Barring the Aleutian and Pribilof Islands in the south and the
Chukchee territory in the west, the Bering Sea is wholly the sea of
the Eskimo, tlie Indians occupying the inland but reaching nowhere
to the coast. There is doubtless mucli of significance in this remark-
able distribution. It is now quite certain that the Eskimo has not
been pressed out by tlie Indian; there are as a rule no traces of liim
farther inland than wliere he has been within historic times. On
the other hand no Indian remnants or remains are known from
any part of the coasts or islands within the Eskimo region ; though
the study of the older sites in these regions has barely as yet begun,
besides which (see Narrative) it is a serious question whether really
old sites could now be located in these I'egions at all even if they had
once existed. At all events the Eskimo appears from all indications
to be the latest comer, and judging from his remains liis occupancy
here is not geologically ancient ; it is one to be counted, apparently, in
many hundreds of years rather than in thousands. The Aleuts in the
south are, as I have pointed out in the Catalogue (No. 1. 1924. p. 39),
not Eskimo but Indians, related to the general Alaska Indian type;
and the Pribilof Islands appear never to have been occupied until
fairh^ recently, when a good number of Aleuts, mostly mixed bloods,
have been transported and established there in the interest of the
seal fisheries.
MEAStTREMENTS OF LIVING WESTERN ESKIMO
Thanks to Moore, Collins, and Stewart, all of the National
Museum, instructed by me and working with the same instru-
ments, we now have several small to fair series of measurements on
the living western E.skimo of both sexes. They are tabulated below.
They are the first made on these groups and will be of much interest
both in general and in connection witli the measurements made on the
skulls and bones of most of the same people. The main points shown
are as follows :
Stature. — The stature of the males ranges from markedly to mod-
erately submedium. There is a considerable similarity. Only the
Yukon group and that of Togiak I'each near or slightly above me-
dium, the general human medium for males approaching 165 centi-
meters. The female stature on the St. Lawrence Island averages 12
centimeters less than that of the males, which is about the difference
found in most other peoples. At Hooper Bay, and esjDecially at the
Nunivak Island, the difference is less, indicating either that the males
are sliglitly stunted or that the growth of the females is somewhat
favored.
hrdliCka] physical ANTHROPOLOGY 239
Height sifting. — The hei<];ht-sittin<r-stature index ranges from
slightly to quite notably higher than it is in other races, indicating
a tendency toward a relatively long trunk and somewhat short limbs.
A study of the long bones shows that this is due especially, if not
wholly, to the relative shoi'tness of the tibia ; and the subdevelopment
of this bone may, it seems, be ascribed to a great deal of squatting
both at home during the long winters and in tlie canoes. The male
Eskimo show more difference from other males in this respect than
the Eskimo females show from other females.*"^
A7'm span. — Relatively to the stature the length of the arms in the
Eskimo males is shorter than it is in other racial groups, though there
appears to be some inequality in this resj^ect. This shortness would
be especially marked if we compared the arm span with the height
sitting. It is due essentially to a shortness of the distal half of the
upper limbs. The males once more show tliis disproportion more
as compared to other males than the females compared with others
of their sex. (See comp. data in Old Americans.) This may be
connected in some way with the male Eskimo work and habits ; or it
may be an expression of a correlative subdevelopment with that of the
lower limbs. It is a good point for further study.
The head. — The head, especially when taken in relation to the
stature, is of good size, particularly on the Nunivak Island and on the
Yukon. This agrees with what is known of the Eskimo head, skull,
and brain elsewhere.
The size of the Eskimo head — which is not caused by a thick skull —
will best be appreciated by contrasting it with that of civilized whites.
In whites in general the mean head diameter or cephalic module
ranges in males from approximately 15.70 to 16.40; in the male west-
ern Eskimo groups the range is 15.87 to 16.08, and 16.11 in the group
at Marshall on the Yukon. The percentage relation of the module to
stature in 12 groups of male whites, including the old Americans,
averages 9.31 to 10.11 ; in the male Eskimo groups it is from 9.57 to
9.9^. In females, the cephalic module is 15.57 in the old Americans,
15.36 to 15.68 in the Eskimo; the relation of the module to stature in
the former being 9.59, in the latter 10.15 to 10.^5.
In the western Eskimo woman the head dimensions are particu-
larly favorable. In the old American whites the mean head diameter
in the female is to that of the male on the average as 95 to 100; in
the two main groups of tlie western Eskimo it is as 96.1 and 96.7 to
100. Nothing is known as to the cause of this apparently favorable
status of the Eskimo woman; it is another interesting point for
further inquiry.
•^ For compar.Ttive data on theso and othor proportions see writer's Old Americans,
Baltimori', 1925 ; also Topinard's and Martin's textbooljs.
240
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SUEVEY IN ALASKA
[ETH. ANN. 46
In shape, the head of the western Eskimo is highly mesocephalie
to moderately brachycephalic and of only fair height, and it seldom
approaches the scaphoid or dome-shaped. It is not the narrow, high,
keeled skull of the northeastern and often the northern Eskimo.
The physiognomy, the characteristics of the body, and the mental-
ity and behavior, are in general typical Eskimo ; but the form of the
vault is substantially diiferent. It is a form which approaches on
one side that of the northwesternmost Indian, and on the other that of
the northeastern and Mongoloid Asiatics. More must be said about
this when we come to consider the skull.
The forehead. — Anthropometric studies have shown repeatedly ^'^'^
that the height of the forehead is not a safe gauge of intelligence,
as commonly believed, but is controlled by the variable height of
the hair line. Thus the common full-blood American Negro
laborer and servant show a slightly higher forehead than the edu-
cated old American whites.
Something of a similar nature is found in the Eskimo. As seen
in the following table, in the males the western Eskimo forehead is
absolutely, and especially relatively to stature, higher than it is in
the whites. In the females the absolute height in the two races is
identical, but relatively to stature the Eskimo again shows a clear
though somewhat lesser advantage. The condition is apparently not
due to the size of the head, for this is not greater than in the whites,
in the males; while in the females, where the Eskimo shows a
slightly larger head than the white in relation to stature, the fore-
head fails to correspond.
Dimensions op Forehead
Western Eskimo
old Americans
Male
Female
Male
Female
cm.
6.86
4.23
10.58
71. 1
64.8
cm. E
6.45
4.23
10. 54
73. 7
61. 2
cm.
6.59
3. 78
10. 59
76. 4
63. 7
cm.
6.45
3. SO
Breadth: Diameter frontal minimum
Percentage relation of diameter frontal
minimum to breadth of face
10. 12
77.8
Forehead index (HX100)_
62. 1
(d)
With the lower breadth of the forehead, conditions are also inter-
esting. The absolute figures for the two races show a reversal.
^° See 01(1 Americans ; al.so the writer's The natives of Kharga Oasis. Egypt, .Smiths.
Misc. Coll., Washington, 1912 ; Anthropology of the Chippewa, Holmes Anniv. Vol.,
Washington, 1916 ; and Measurements of the Negro, Am. J. Phys. Anthrop., 1928, xii.
No. 1.
HRDLlfKA]
PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
241
The height of the forehead is larger in the Eskimo than in the white
males, equal in the females; the lower frontal breadth is equal in the
males but larger in the Eskimo than in the white female. Propor-
tionately to stature, which is so much lower in the Eskimo, both sexes
of the latter show an advantage in the dimension over the white.
The percental relation of the breadth of the forehead to that of
the face reflects the excess of the latter in the Eskimo, particularly
the male. There is evidently not a full direct correlation between
the two dimensions. Yet relatively to its height the face is broader
in the females than in the males (see below), which is doubtless
not without influence on the lower breadth of the forehead in the
former.
To summarize, the western Eskimo forehead exceeds in area that
of the American whites, in both sexes, and that particularly in rela-
tion to stature. As to the individual measurements, the male Eskimo
forehead as contrasted with that of the white is especially high, the
female esi^ecially broad.
To which should be added that in the Eskimo the spheno-tem-
poral region is often remarkably full, almost bulging, so that, con-
trary to what may be observed in the Negi'o, the frontal maximum
diameter is also probably larger than in the whites, all of which
doubtless has significance, even though this is not yet fully under-
stood.
The face. — The principal measurements and relations are given
below. They show a face large and especially broad. Moreover,
relatively to its height the face is especially broad in the Eskimo
female, in connection doubtless with the well-known excess of the
work (in softening leather, etc.) of her jaws, with consequent de-
velopment of the muscles of mastication, which in turn broaden the
zygomae. »
Dimensions of the Face
Western Eskimo
old American whites
Height menton-nasion
Females to males (M = 100)
Diameter bizygomatic maximum
Females to males (M = 100)
Facial index, anatomic
Facial module (or mean diameter), ana-
tomic
Female to male (M = 100)
Percentage relation of female and male to
stature
Male Ftwxle
12.67 n. 64
91. 9
14. 88 14. 30
96. 1
85. 2 SI. 4
13. 77 12. 97
94. 2
8. 49 8. 50
Male FeiTiale
12. 15 11. 09
91. 3
13. 87 12. 99
93. 6
87. 6 85. 4
13. 01 12. 04
92.5
7. 46 7. 44
242
ANTHBOPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA
[ETH. ANN. 46
The great size of the Eskimo face is especially apparent in the
relations of the mean diameter of the face to stature; it is in this
respect no less than 12 per cent in excess of that of the whites in the
males and 12.5 per cent in the females.^"
Lomer facial breadth. — Due to the great development of the mas-
seter muscles and the consequent frequent lesser or greater eversion
of the angles of the lower jaw, the bigonial diameter in the Eskimo
is very large, jDarticularly when taken in relation to stature, and in
such relation it looms especially large in the females. Compared
with the old American whites, the bigonial breadth in its relation to
stature is higher in the Eskimo males by 15.5 per cent, in the Eskimo
females by 17.7 per cent. And measurements of Eskimo lower jaws
in general show that this breadth in the western contingents is not
exceptional
Lower Facial Breadth
Western Eskimo (St.
Lawrence Island)
Old Americans
Diameter bigonial
Female vs. male
Percentage relation to stature
Percentage relation to breadth of face
Males Females
11.78 11.18
7. SI 7. 39
80 79. 5
Mates Females
10. 63 9. 84
92. 6
6. 09 6. 08
76. 7 75. 8
The nose. — The nose of the western Eskimo promises to be of
much importance in the study of Eskimo origins in general. No-
where in this region is it like the nose of the northern or north-
eastern groups. It is decidedly broader. Its breadth is intermediary
between that of the Alaska and other Indians and that of the north-
ern and northeastern Eskimo^ connecting with both, and these charac-
teristics are so generalized throughout western Alaska and the Bering
Sea islands that they can not possibly be attributed to Indian or
other admixture. Nor can this relatively broad nose of the western
Eskimo be well attributed to environmental effects, i. e., to a broaden-
ing of a formerly narrow nose through climatic conditions. There
do not appear to be any such conditions. The only rational explana-
tion seems to be that this is the more original condition of the
Eskimo nose, and that the northern and northeastern narrowness
is a later derivation. More may be said on this point when we
come to consider the skeletal remains.
«" A word of slight caution is due here. In all these cases the proper way would be to
compare the Eskimo with whites of same mean stature. But we have no such whites
available. As it is the comparisons must be taken merely as approximations, but they
are so close approximations that the substance of the conclusions is probably correct.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 40
THE LONG AND BROAD-FACED TYPES. WALES
(1*11010 by Lomen Bros.)
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BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 43
A ■■Hypereskimo," King island. Excessively Developed
Face
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 44
ESKIMO ■MADONNA" AND CHILD. NORTHERN BERING SEA REGION
(Photo by Lomen Bros.)
HEDLlfKA]
PHYSICAL .ANTHROPOLOGY
243
The Eskimo nose is also high, which goes with the height of the
whole face ; that in turn evidently is attributable to more work and
demand — in brief, more mastication. The nose, face, lower jaw, and
other parts of the Eskimo anatomy offer rare opportunities for
studies in the heredity of acquired characters.
No.sE Meusukbmbnts
American whites
old Americans
and immigrants
Old Ameri-
cans
Western Eskimo
Males
Females
Males
Females
Height - . . ..
(13 groups)
4. 95-5. 4
3. 45-3. 6
62. 5-73
4. 94
3.25
66
(6 groups)
5. 47-6. 03
3. 82-3. 93
63. 7-71. 9
5.03
Breadth .__ . .
3. 61
Index - -_ -
71.9
The mouth. — The western Eskimo mouth is large. It is con-
siderably larger (wider) than in the old American whites, though
these are of much higher stature. In relation to stature the width
of the western Eskimo mouth exceeds that in the white old Ameri-
cans by 13 per cent in the males and by nearly 14 per cent in the
females, but there is a close relation with that of a large group
of Indians. The details follow :
Mouth Width
Western Eskimo
(Nunivak and
St. Lawrence Is-
lands)
16 tribes of Indians
of the Southwest
and northern
Mexico.
Old American
whites
Males
Females
Males
Females
Males
Females
Width
5. 73 5. 44
5. 85 5. 49
93- fl
5. 37 4 95
Females versus males-
92 3
Pereentage relation to stature
S.53
3.67
3.50
3.55
3. 07
3.08
The ears. — The ears of the western Eskimo are large. They are
especially long. They exceed in both size and relative length those
of whites, but are in both resjDects much more like those of the
American Indian. The excess in length, both in the Eskimo and
the Indian, is especially marked when this measurement is taken in
relation to stature.
Eelatively to its length, the ear of the female Eskimo in all our
groups is somewhat narrow, giving a lower index. This is not
observed in the available whites and Indians.
244
ANTHROPOLOGICAL, SURVEY IN ALASKA
[ETH. ANN. 46
None of the series below are affected seriously by the age factor;
though with an organ so much influenced by age as the ear the ideal
way would be to compare only groups of the same age.
Eaes
Western Eskimo
Miscellaneous North
American Indian
old American whites
(Labor Ser.)
Males
Females
Males
Females
Males
Females
Height of left ear
Breadth of left ear
Ear index.. .
7.05
3.82
54.2
4.34
6.61
3. 49
52.8
4.33
7.25
3.90
53.2
4. 25
6. 95
3. 70
53.6
4.35
6. 69
3. 79
56. 7
3.S4
6. 10
3.47
56. 9
Percentage relation of
ear length to stature _
3.68
Western Eskimo groups
Whites in general
Height of left ear..
Breadth of left ear
Ear index
6. 71- 7. 40 6. 49- 6. 73
3. 72- 4. 04 3. 45- 3. 57
>S. 3 -58. 9 52. 3 -53. 1
6. 20- 6. 69
3. 58- 3. 79
56 -58. 6
The chest. — The best measurements of the chest, experience has
shown, are the antero-posterior and lateral diameters at the nipple
height in the males and at the cori-esponding level of the upper border
of the fourth costal cartilages in the females. They give not merely
the individual dimensions but also their relation, which is of much
ontogenic as well as other interest, and their mean gives the chest
module which in relation to the stature is anthropologically as well as
individually (medically) important.
The table following gives the chest measurements in the western
Eskimo, in a large group of Indians (my older data), and in the old
American whites as well as others.
The Eskimo chest is large. In the males, in addition, it is very
deep. Compared to that of the white old Americans it is markedly
deeper in the males and broader in the females, notwithstanding the
fact that the Americans are much taller. It is even larger, besides
being relatively deeper in the males and somewhat broader in the
females, than it is in many tribes of the Indian. Only tall and
bulky Indians such as the Sioux show a chest that is absolutely
somewhat larger, but in relation to stature, with which the dimen-
sions of the chest stand in close correlation,^" the Eskimo prevails
even in this instance. This excess in chest development in the Eskimo
must be ascribed in the main to his occupations and exertions, par-
ticularly again, it would seem, in connection with the canoe.
"The chest dimensions correlate with stature, respectively the trunk height, and the
breadth correlates with the depth ; but both are Influenced by function.
hedliOka]
PHYSICAL .ANTHROPOLOGY
Chest MEA.strKEMENTS
245
Western Eskimo.
Nunivak Island
Ifi tribes of southwestern
and New Mexico
Indians
Old Americans
Males
Females
Males
Females
Males
Females
stature .
161.8
29.97
24. 63
82. 2
27.30
16.87
153. 1
28. 63
-22.
76.8
25.32
16.53
167.3
29. 89
22.77
76. 15
26.33
15.74
-155.
28. 21
21.91
77.66
25.06
16. 17
174.3
29.76
21.70
72.9
25.73
H. 75
161.8
Breadth - -
26.62
Depth ...
20.03
Index
75. 3
23. 32
Module vs. stature. -
14.41
4 other groups of west-
ern Eskimo, males
72 Sioux Indi-
aas, males
12 other groups of
white males
Stature- _
- 160. 6-166.
-29. 6- 30.
-23. - 24. 75
76. 7- 83. 3
26.97
16. 56
-174.
31.92
-26.
81. 4
28.96
16. 6 A
163. 4-171. 6
Breadth . ...
-25. 9- 28.
Depth
20. 9- 22. 6
Index .........
72. 9- 81. 5
Module ..... . .
23. 4- 25. 7
Module vs. stature. _ _. ...
14. 22- IL 8A
The hand. — The hand of the Eskimo is small, both absolutely and
relatively to stature. But it is rather broad relative to its length,
giving a high index. The index is higher than that of any of the
groups available for comparison, white or Indian, excepting a few
groups of immigrant whites, laborers.
Hand
Western Eskimo (group
means)
Males
Females
16 tribes of
southwestern
and Mexican
Indians
Males
Fe-
males
Old Americans
Males
Fe-
males
12 groups
of immi-
grant
whites
Males
Left hand:
Length _
Breadth
Percentage relation of hand
length to stature
17. 35-18. 42
8. 60- 8. 90
w.m
16. 60-16. 85
7. 78- 8. 20
10. 9i
18.63
8.61
11.07
17.20
7.71
19.28
9.18
11.06
17.34
7.87
-11. -11. S
Western Es-
kimo
Southwestern
and Mexican
Indians
Sioux
Old Ameri-
can whites
12 other groups
of whites
Males
Fe-
males
Males
Fe-
males
Males
Fe-
males
Males
Fe-
males
Males
Fe-
males
Hand index...
49.6
47.5
45.9
44.8
47.6
47.6
45.4
47.6-50.3
72 Sioux males: U.iO.
246
ANTHEOPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA
[ETH. ANN. 46
The foot. — The foot of the western Eskimo, like his hand, is both
absohitely and relatively to stature rather short, but it is broad,
giving a high breadth-length index. Its actual breadth perceptiblj^
exceeds that of the much taller old American whites, though not
I'eaching that of any of the immigrant laborers.
Contrary to what was seen in the case of the hand, the relative
))roportions of the Eskimo foot, as expressed by the index, are almost
identical with those of the southwestern and Mexican Indians. The
Sioux foot is relatively longer, and so is that of whites except
southern Italians, who, though their foot as a whole is larger, give
the same index as the Eskimo.
Foot
Western
Eskimo
16 tribes of
southwestern
and Mexican
Indians
Old Americans
12 groups
of immi-
grant
whites
Males
Fe-
males
Males
Fe-
males
Males
Fe-
males
Males
Left foot:
24.23
9.72
22.13
8.70
25.42
10.15
23.30
9.07
15. OS
26.12
9.49
H.S7
23.33
8.36
Breadth . __.
Percentage relation foot length- stature. -
15.S6-ie.7S
Western
Eskimo
Southwest-
ern and
Mexican
Indians
Sioux
Old American
whites
12 other groups
of whites
Males
Fe-
males
Males
Fe-
males
Males
Fe-
males
Males
Fe-
males
Males
Fe-
males
40. 1
39.3
39.9
38.9
37.1
36.3
36.8
37. 9-40. 1
72 Sioux males: IS. 40.
Girth of the calf. — The western Eskimo, lilce the American Indi-
ans, are characterized by a rather slender calf. The size of the
calf correlates in a large measure with stature. Reducing our meas-
urements to calf girth-stature ratios, these are seen to be much alike
in the three racial groups used for comparison, namely the Eskimo,
the Indian, and the old American white. But this is deceptive.
The correlation of size of calf with stature is not uniform (see " Old
Americans," p. 348) for all stature groups; as the scale in stature
descends the calf is relatively stouter. If we take white Americans
of approximately the same stature with the Eskimo here considered,
there appears a higher ratio, showing that stature for stature the
girth of the calf of the Eskimo is smaller, notwithstanding his gen-
erally more ample supply of adipose tissue. Once more his relation
HRDLU'KA]
PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
247
is closer with the Indian. The Eskimo and the Indian women
are especially much alike, while the white women make a marked
exception — their calfs (as well as thighs) have more fat than is
found in those of their Eskimo and Indian sisters.
Measurements of the Leg
Western Eskimo
Southwestern and
Mexican Indians
(16 tribes)
Old white
Americans
Maximum girth of left calf. _
Percentage relation to stature.
Percentage relation to stat-
ure in those approaching
the Eskimo stature
Females v. males (M = 100)-
Male
33. 6
20. 7
Female
3L 4
20. 6
Male
34. 1
20. 52
Female
32
20.54
Male
36. 1
20. 3
Female
35. 5
21. 95
1.6
2.3
93. 5
93. 9
98. S
I
Physiological Observations
Due to various difficulties which do not exist to that extent elsewhere,
the physiological observations on the Eskimo are neither as numerous
or extended as would be desirable; yet there are some data of value.
They extend to the pulse, resijiration, temperature, and dynamome-
tric tests of hand pressure. They were made mainly on St. Law-
rence and Nunivak Islands, by Moore, Collins, and Stewart. They
quite agree, especially after elimination of some records that are
clearly erroneous or abnormal. The tests should be extended with
even more rigid precautions in future work among the Eskimo.
The results are given below. They were all made in the summer
season and on healthy subjects, yet there were numerous indications
of temporary disorders, pathological or functional. Even after a
careful elimination of the obvious cases of such disorders not a few
minor irregularities have doubtless remained, so that the data can
not be taken for more than fairly close approximations to the normal.
The data show remarkably low pulse, respiration rate and tem-
perature close to those of whites, with a submedium hand pressure.
(For comparative data see "Old Americans.'") The low pulse is
also characteristic in the Indian, as I have repeatedly pointed out
before (see especially my " Physiological and Medical Observations
among the Indians," etc.. Bull. 34, Bur. Amer. Ethn., Washington,
1908).
The dynamometric tests agree also better with those on the Indians
than with those on whites; they are valid only as to the hands, and
they embody not only the strength of the muscles but also that of the
conscious impulse behind them. The age factor, of importance, does
not here enter materially into the case.
248
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA
[BTH. ANN. 40
Pttlbb, Respiration, Tempekature, and Stretngth
ST. LAWRENCE ISLAND ESKIMO
MALES ALL
strength (Collins dynamometer)
Pressure right hand
Pressure left hand
(63)
(54)
(61)
(60)
(60)
62. 1
20. 1
98. 64
34. 36
28. 75
(40-78)
(15-25)
(97. 6-99. 4)
(19. 5-45. 5)
(19. 5-44)
(47)
(47)
(47)
(57)
(57)
♦61.3
♦20.4
* 98. 84
* 34. 34
* 29. 78
7EMALES SUSPICIOUS CASES ELIMINATED
(25)
72.4
(54-84)
(25)
20
(15-23)
(25)
99. 13
(98. 4-99. 9)
*
(47)
20. 13
(14. 5-29)
(47)
16.81
(12-22. 5)
NUNIVAK ISLAND ESKIMO
Pulse'
Respiration ^
Temperature ^
Males
(6)
63. 2
(52-68)
(6)
18.2
(16-21)
(6)
98.05
(97. 8-98. 4)
» Sitting, at rest, no signs of any health disorder.
^ Sitting, at rest.
3 Sitting, at rest, sub lingua.
* Subjects where all three determinations were not possible
and the most suspicious ones (abnormally above or below the
mean) eliminated.
The details of these six records were :
Age (year)
Time of day
(p. m.)
Pulse
Respi-
ration
Tem-
pera-
ture
40
33
19
45
40
4.40
2
2.30
1.25
1.30
60
66
88
68
64
21
18
18
18
(14)
98.1
97.8
98.2
98.4
97.8
In connection with the pressure tests in the two hands, some inter-
esting comparisons are possible between the Eskimo here dealt with
and the old white Americans. As all the tests were made with the
same instrument and method the results inspire confidence. It is in
details of this nature that the anthropologist finds again and again
the most striking proofs of the basal unity of the living races and
their necessarily common origin somewhere in the past.
HRDLIlKA]
PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
249
Pbessube Foecb in the Hands in thb WESTsatN Eskimo and Old White
Americans
Western Eskimo
Male Female
Old Americans
Male female
Pressure:
Right hand
Left hand
Percentage relation of left to right
Percentage relation of female to male (M
100):
Right hand
Left hand
Kg.
34. 36
28. 75
S3. 7
Kg.
20. 13
16.81
83.5
Kg.
41. 8
36. 1
86. 4
Kg.
23. 3
19. 4
83.6
55.8
53. 7
55.5
53. 7
Summary of Observations ox the Li\tng Western Eskimo ''
These Eskimo are generally of submedium stature, occasionally
reachinfr medium. The distal parts of their extremities are relatively
short. Walk in adult males somewhat awkward.
In head form they are highly mesocephalic to moderately bra-
chycephalic; the height of the head averages about medium. The
head is of good size, especially when taken in relation to stature.
The forehead is above medium in both height and breadth.
The face is large in all dimensions, generally full and rather
flat. In men it not seldom approaches a square form. The lower
jaw region is largely developed, the angles of the lower jaw are
liroad to protruding.
The nose is of fair breadth, with bridge somewhat narrow above
and on the whole only moderately high. The mouth is large, lips
medium to somewhat above. The ears are long. Beard sparse on
-sides of face, mostly sparse on chin ; mustache sparse and often limited
to tufts above the corners of the mouth. Expression generally good-
natured, smiling.
The chest is large, in females bi"oad, in males especially deep.
There is but a mild lumbar curve and no steatopygy. The lower
limbs in females are less stout and shapely than they are in whites.
The hands and feet are small, but, particularly the foot, relatively
broad.
Temperature and respiration approach those in normal whites,
though they appear frequently to be slightly higher; pulse normally is
slow.
Dynamometric tests of strength (pressure, both hands) give some-
what lower records than in whites.
^ Incorporated in this are writer's own observations.
882.53°— 30 17
250 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ann. «
Kemaeks
The most noteworthy and important result of these studies on
the living western Eskimo is the evidence, coming to light again
and again, of their fundamental somatic relations to the Indian.
These relations are too numerous and weighty to be accidental. Nor
can tliey be ascribed to mixture with the Indian in such far-away
groups as the St. Lawrence Islanders, who so long as known have
never had any direct or even indirect contact with Indians. These
relations in dimensions and relative proportions of the body, and
in ijhysiological characteristics such as the slow normal pulse, are
sui^plemented by many phases of behavior, and often by a more or
less Indianlike physiognomy. They inevitably lead to the con-
clusion that the Eskimo and the Indian are in the root members of
the same family. They are two digits of the same hand, separate
and diverging, yet at base joined to and derived from the same
source. And this source, according to many indications, is the
paleoasiatic, "mongoloid," stem of northern Asia. The western
Eskimo shows to be nearer this source than his more northern and
northeastern relatives, indicating either that he is a later comer, or,
\vhich is more probable, that he has changed less in the south than
in the north. It may be possible to say something more on this
subject after the skeletal remains have been considered.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 45
YOUNG WOMAN. NORTHERN BERING SEA REGION
(Photo by Lomen Bros.)
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 46
Young Women, full-blood Eskimos, Seward Penjnsula
(Photo by Lomen Bros.)
' '.
z
<
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 50
n. Yukon Eskimo, below Paimute. (A. H., 102'1)
b, Norton yound Eskimo woman and cbild. (A. H.> 1926)
s-
o
a.
a:
3
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BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 54
ESKIMO. INDIANLIKE; NORTHERN BERING SEA REGION
(Photo by Lomen Bros.)
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 55
ESKIMO, INDIANLIKE: NORTHERN BERING SEA REGION
(Photo by Lomen Bros.)
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 56
ESKIMO. INDIANUIKE; ARCTIC REGION
(Photo by Lomen Bros.)
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 57
SIBERIAN Eskimo and Child. Indian Type
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 58
a, Mrs. Sage, Kevaliaa. Fine Indian type. Boid on Nolak. Both
parents Notak " Eskimo." (A. H., 1926.)
6, Eskimo family, Indianlike; near Barrow. (A. H., 1926.)
urdliTka 1
PHYSICAL, ANTHEOPOLOGY
251
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ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IX ALASKA
[ETH. ANN. 46
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URDI.Il'KA]
PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
253
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254 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [bth. ann. 4o
Present Data on the Skull and other Skeleital Remains of the
Western Eskimo
the skull
Until recently collections of skeletal remains of the western Eskimo
were confined largely to skulls. The material in our own institutions
comprised a small collectiim of Mahlemut (St. Michael Island) and
"Chukchee '' (Asiatic Eskimo) crania made in the early sixties by
W. H. Dall; a larger series of crania gathered in 1881 on St. Michael
and St. Lawrence I.slands by E. W. Nelson; 28 skulls with 3 skeletons
brought in 1898 by E. A. Mcllheny from Point Barrow; a valu-
able lot of skulls from Indian Point, Siberia, with a few from St.
Lawrence Island, collected by W. Bogoras ; and some scattered speci-
mens by otlier explorers. To this were added in 1912 an important
collection of skulls, with a few skeletons, made by Riley D. Moore, at
that time my aide, on St. Lawrence Island ; an important lot of crania
gathered a few years later by V. Stef ansson at Point Barrow ; and a
third large and highly interesting lot, this time of both skulls and
skeletons, collected near Barrow for the University Museum at Phila-
delphia in 1917-1919 by W. B. Van Valin. But none of the later ma-
terial was described execepting the Mcllheny collection which, in 1916.
was reported ujDon by E. W. Hawkes.""
During the survey wliich is the subject of this report a special
effort was made to collect all the older skeletal material along the
Bering Sea and Arctic coasts that could be reached, and the result
was the bringing back of some 450 crania, nearly 50 with skeletons,
and many separate parts of the skeleton ; nearly all of the specimens
proceeding from localities thus far not i-epresented in the collections.
To which were added in 1927 nearly 200 skulls with a good number
of skeletons gathered by H. B. Collins, jr., assistant curator in the De-
partment of Anthropology, United States National Museum, and my
aide, T. D. Stewart, on Nunivak Island and along the west coast of
Alaska from Bristol Bay to near the Yukon delta."""
We tlms have now a relatively vast amount of skeletal material on
the western Eskimo; it is essentially a virginal material; it is well
identified as to locality; and the specimens are mostly in very good
condition.
Aside from Hawkes's thesis, nothing of note had been published
On these collections until 1924, when the first number of my Cata-
logue of Human Crania in the United States National Museum Col-
lections appeared, which includes the principal measurements on
•" Skeletal Measurements and Observations of the Point Barrow Eskimo, Amer. Anthrop.,
n s. XVIII, pp. 203-244. Lancaster, 1916.
""■ In 1(128 Mr. Collins brought another important accession to these collections.
hrdliCka] physical ANTHROPOLOGY 255
290 skulls of the western Eskimo. Since then, in view of the grow-
ing importance of the subject, I have remeasurecl every specimen
reported before; have measured personally all the new collections;
and thanks to the kindness of those in charge have been enabled to
extend the measurements to all the collections of Eskimo crania,
both from Alaska and elsewhere, that were preserved up to the
spring of 1928 at the National Museum at Ottawa, the American
Museum of Natural History of New York, and the Wistar Institute
of Philadelphia, which now contains the University Museum collec-
tions. The total records reach now to 1,283 adult skulls from prac-
tically all important parts of the total Eskimo area, besides a con-
siderable quantity of other bones of the skeleton. The main results
of the work will be given here, the detailed measurements being re-
served for another number of the Catalogue.
To save reiwtitions and possible confusion and to show more clearly
the status of the southwestern and midwestern Eskimo, the entire
cranial material will be dealt with in this section, and previous
records on the northeastern and a few other groups of the Eskimo
will not be drawn upon to preserve the advantage of dealing with
data obtained by the same methods, instruments, and observer.
In presenting the records it is found expedient, both on geo-
grajihical and anthropological grounds, to make but three groupings.
The first of these comprises the Eskimo from their southernmost
limit to Norton Sound and the Bering Sea islands ; the second group
takes in Seward Peninsula (or the larger part of it) and the Arctic
coast to Point Barrow; while the third embraces all the Eskimo
east of Point Barrow. The first of these three groups is i-emarkably
homogeneous, the second and third show each some exceptional units.
It may be said at once that the dialectic subdivisions of Dall,
Nelson, and others, in a large majority of cases are not found to be
accompanied by corresponding physical differences, so that in a
somatological classification they become submerged.
SKULL SIZE
The external size of the .skull is best expressed by the cranial
module or mean of the three jjrincipal diameters; the internal size,
respectively the volume of the brain, by the "cranial capacity."
The module among the southwestern and midwestern Eskimo aver-
ages 15.44 centimeters in the males and 14.77 centimeters in the fe-
males. For people of submedium .stature these are good dimensions.
Fifty-two male and 40 female skulls of the much taller Sioux (writ-
er's unpublished data) give the modules of only 15.2.5 and 14.27 centi-
meters; while 6 male and 9 female Munsee Indians, also tall,^ give
1 Bull. 62. Bur. Amer. Etta., p. 22. Nos. 320-313.
256 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ann. 46
practically the same values as these Eskimos, namel.y 15.48 centi-
meters for the males and 14.75 centimeters for the females.
Not all the western groups, however, give equally favorable pro-
portions. In general, the coast people below Norton Sound, and
especially below the Yukon, give, so far as the males are concerned,
the lowest values. It is interesting to note that it is precisely these
people who among the western Eskimo are reputed to be about
the lowest also in culture. The Togiak and near-by Kulukak males
showed, as seen before, also about the smallest head in the living.
The St. Lawrence Island males stand just about the middle, but
the females of this island, as, interestingly, also in the living, show
markedly less favorably. The Nunivak sloills, as with the living, are
somewhat above the average, while in the small Pilot Station
(Yukon) group, just as in the near-by contingent of Marshall among
the living, the males have the largest heads in this western territory.
The lower Yukon Eskimo were also shown, it may be recalled, to be
of a higher stature than the majority of the coast people. It is a
group that deserves further attention.
The module of the female skull does not evidently stand always
in harmony with that of the male. The most striking example of
this is shown, as already mentioned, by the St. Lawrence Island
females, both skulls and the living. The females of this isolated
island are also unduly short, but their small head is not entirely
due to the defective stature. There must exist on this island, it would
seem, some conditions that are disadvantageous to the female. In
the small groups, such as that from the Little Diomede, the dishar-
monies are doubtless partly due to small numbers of specimens, but
there may also be other factors, such as the bringing in of women
from other places.-
Taking the mean of all the groups equalizes conditions, and it is
seen that the module in both sexes is almost identical with that of
the more northern groups, to Point Barrow. But the north Arctic
and northeastern groups give a cranial module that in both sexes is
somewhat higher, though their stature, according to the available
data (Deniker, Boas, Duckworth, Steensby, Thalbitzer), is not
superior.
A very remarkable showing is that of the percentage relation of the
female to male skull size in the three large gi'oupings. In the first two
it is identical, in the third it differs less than could confidently be ex-
pected among the closest relatives. Another remarkable fact is that
this important relation is found to be much like that in the Eskimo
in various groups of Indians ; thus it was 96 in the Indians of
' More or less danger in such cases as these lies in erroneous sexing of the skulls. Due
to experience, care, and especially to the relatively numerous accompanying Imnes or
skeletons, this danger in the present series has been reduced to the minimum.
HRDLIllKA]
PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
257
Arkansas and Louisiana," .9J.-5 in the Munsee of New Jersey,^ and 96.It
in the Indian skulls of California/ But it is only 93.G in the Sioux
(52 male. 40 female skulls) and differs more or less also in other
tribes and peoples. A comprehensive study of this relation, with
due respect to age, will some day well repay the effort.
T. ^ HT /L + B + H\
Eskimo: Cranial Module I ^ I
MALES IN ASCENDING ORDER
Southwestern and inidwesteTU
Togiak
Mumtrak
Southwestern .41aska
Hooper Bay
St. Michael Island
Little Diomede Island..
Pastolik and Yukon
Delta
St. Lawrence Island
Golovnin Bay to Cape
Nome
Males
(5)
15.21
(4)
15.22
(3)
15. 25
(9)
15.30
(8)
15.30
(5)
15. 33
(14)
15.34
(145)
15.42
(4)
15.52
Females
(7)
14.73
(6)
14.68
(2)
14.90
(4)
14.68
(6)
14.72
(7)
15.09
(20)
14.83
(128)
14.27
(2)
14.65
Males
Females
(46)
(70)
Nuni vak Island
15.53
14.90
(13)
(16)
Indian Point (Siberia)..
15. 54
14 88
(3)
(2)
Chukchee
15.56
15.05
(4)
(1)
Port Clarence
15. 57 (14 57)
(9)
(16)
Nelson Island
15.59
14 64
(3)
(3)
Pilot Station, Yukon
15. 91
15
General averages, ap-
(275)
(290)
proximately
16. U
H. 77
Females vs. males (M =
100)
95. 7
Northwestern
(2) (1)
Kotzebue Sound 15.05(14 67)
(12) (8)
Shishmaref 15.19 14 71
(132) (84)
Point Hope 15.37 14 72
(47) (52)
Point Barrow 15. 45 14 75
(35) (34)
Barrow and vicinity 15. 46 14. 66
(27)
Old Igloos near Barrow. 15. 52
(19)
Wales 15. 66
General averages, ap- (274)
proximatelj' 15. 39
Females vs. males (M =
100) 96.
(24)
14 72
(14)
14 86
(217)
11 73
Northern and northeastern
(49) (52)
Greenland 15.51 14 72
Hudson Bay and vi- (5) (2)
cinity 15.55 14 57
Baffin Land and vl- (16) (17)
cinity 15.55 15.04
(6) (10)
Northern .'Arctic 15. 63 14 85
'Bull. 62, Bur. Amer. Ethn., p. 23.
Southampton Island
(9) (6)
15. 65 15. 18
(7) (2)
Smith Sound 15.81 15.15
General averages, ap- (92) (89)
proximately 15.62 14.92
Females vs. males (M =
100) 95.5
•Cat. Crania. U. S. Nat. Mus.. No. 2.
258 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SUT?VEY IN ALASKA [BTH. ann. «
MODTILE AND CAPACITT
A comparison of considerable interest is also that of the cranial
module or mean diameter, to the capacity of the same skulls. This
comparison reveals an important sex factor.^ Relatively to the
module, the capacity is very appreciably smaller in the female than it
is in the male. This is a universal condition to which, so far as known,
there are occasional individual but no group exceptions. It appears
very clearly in the Eskimo. In 283 western male Eskimo skulls in
which we have so far measured the capacity," the module averages
15.38 centimeters, the capacity 1.490 cubic centimeters; while
in 382 female skulls thus far gauged the former averages 14.82
centimeters, the latter 1,337 cubic centimeters. The percentage
relation of the capacity to the module, the numbers taken
as a whole, is 9&.S in the males but only 9()£ in the females. This
means that relatively to the external size of the skull the female
Eskimo brain is 6.66 per cent smaller. Similar sex disproportion
exists in other American groups as well as elsewhere. Some day
when suitable data accumulate it will be of much interest to study
this condition on a wider scale.
ADDITIONAL REMARKS ON CRANIAL MODULE
Befoj-e we leave this subject, it may be well to point out two note-
worthy facts apparent from the data on the northwestern and north-
eastern groups. The first is that the figures on both sexes from
Barrow and Point Barrow are very nearly the same, suggesting
strongly the identity of the people of the two settlements; and the
Point Hope group is in close relation. The second fact is the curious
identity of the old Igloo group. 8 miles southwest of Barrow, with
the Gi'eenlanders. The import of this will be seen later.
SKULL SHAPE
Utilizing the materials of the Otis and Barnard Davis Catalogues
and with measurements taken for him on additional specimens in
several of our museums, Boas, in 1895 (Verb. Berl. anthrop. Ges.,
398), as already mentioned, reported the cranial index of 37 " west-
ern Eskimo " skulLs of both sexes (without giving localities or de-
tails) as 77. He also reports in the same place (p. 391) the cephalic
index of 61 probably male living "Alaska Eskimo," again without
locality, as 79.2. These i-ather high indices and the relatively elevated
stature (61 subjects, 165.8 centimeters) lead him to believe (p. 376)
'• See writer's " Relation of the Size of the Head and Skull to Capacity in the Two
Sexes," Am. J. Phys. Anthrop., 1925, viil. No. 3.
" All measured de novo by my aide, T. D. .Stewart ; for procedure see my "An-
thropometry."
BKDLiiT'KA] PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 259
that both are probalilj' due to an admixture with the Alaskan Indian,
though the report contains no measurements of the latter.
The data that it is now possible to present may perhaps throw a
new light on the matter. As was already seen in part from the data
on the living, the head resp. the skull tends to relative shortness
and broadness throughout the southwestern, midwestern, and Bering
Sea region (excepting parts of tlie Seward Peninsula). Important
groups in this region, ^particularly those on some of the islands, had
little or no contact with the Indian. The cranial index in most of
the groups of the southwestern and midwestern Eskimo equals or
even exceeds that of the Indian. And Eskimo groups with a rela-
tively elevated cranial index are met with even in the far north, as
at Point Hope, Hudson Bay, and Smith Sound." Finally, the
shorter and broader head connects with that of the Asiatic Eskimo
and that of the Chukchee, as well as other northeastern Asiatics.^
The records now available show the highest cranial indices to
occur on the coast between Bristol Bay and the Yukon and on lower
Yukon itself, while the lowest indices of the midwest area, though
still mesocranic, occur in the aggregate of Nunivak Island and the
mouths of the Yukon. Another geographical as well as somatologi-
cal aggregate is that of the people of the St. Lawrence and Diomeile
Islands and of Indian Point, Siberia, tlie cranial index in these three
localities being identical.
Eskimo: Cranial Index
Mean of both sexes /Male + female index\ ^^ ^ 281 adult skulls
IN DESCENDING ORDER
Southwestern and midwestern
(11)
Togiak SO. 1
(13)
Hooper Bay 79. 7
(10)
Mumtrak 79. 6
(6)
Pilot Station, Lower Yukon 79. 3
(5)
Chukchee (Siberia) 78. 6
(26)
Nelson Island 78
(6)
Southwestern Alaska 77. 7
(32)
Indian Point (Siberia) 77. 4
(12)
Little Diomede Island 77. 4
(299)
St. LawTenee Island 77. 2
(5)
Port Clarence 76. 6
(34)
Pastolik and Yiikon Delta 76. 1
(14)
St. Michael Island 75. 7
(116)
Nunivak Island 75. 6
■^ Compnre writer's ".\n Eskimo rtrnin,"' Amer. Anthrop. n. .s.. vol. ni, pp. 454—500,
Ntw York, 1901 ; and bis " Contribution to the Autliropology of Central and Smith Sound
Eskimo," Anthrop. Papers, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., v, pt. 2, New York, 1910.
* Compare, besides present data, measurements by Bogoras in his report on " The
Chukrhee," Mem. .Vm. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1904-9, xi, p. 33 ; 148 male and 49 female adults
gave him the mean stature of 162.2 and —152, the mean cephalic index of 82 and S1.8.
260 ANTHEOPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [bth. ann. 46
NoHhweslern
(222)
Point Hope 76. 0
Kotzebue Sound and Kobuk (3)
River 75. 4
(22)
Shishmaref 74. 5
(101)
Point Barrow 74. 1
(73)
Barrow 73. 5
(33)
Wales 73. 5
(7)
Golovnin Bav *°72. 6
(52)
Igloos, southwest of Barrow 69. 7
Northern and northeastern
(15)
Northern Arctic 73. 6
(33)
Baffin Land and vicinity 73. 2
(101)
Greenland 71. 9
(7)
Hudson Bay and vicinity 76. 3
(9)
Smith Sound 76. 2
(15)
Southampton Island 74. 8
The Seward Peninsula shows sudden differences. There are a
few localities along its southern coast where the cranial type belongs
apparently to the Bering Sea and southern area. One site at Port
Clarence was one of these. But already at Golovnin Bay, which
is not far from Norton Sound and St. Michael Island, and according
to the evidence of the most recent collections (Collins 1928), also
at Sledge Lsland, there is a sudden a^jpearance of marked dolicho-
crany, which is repeated at Wales, on the western extremity of the
peninsula, approached at Shishmaref, the main Eskimo settlement
on its northern shore, and, judging from some fragmentary material
seen at the eastern end of the Salt Lake, also in the interior. The
cause of this distinctive feature in the Seward Peninsula is for the
jjresent elusive. The little known territory urgently needs a thor-
ough exploration.
The distribution of the cranial index farther north along the
western coast shows several points of interest. The first is the
exceptional position of Point Hope, one of the oldest and most popu-
lous settlements in these regions, which by its cranial index seems
to connect with the Bering Sea groups. The second is the closeness,
once more, of Bari-ow and Point Barrow. The third and greatest
is the presence, in a small cluster of old igloos 8 miles down the coast
from Barrow, of a 'group of people that finds no counterpart in its
cranial index and, as will be seen later, also in some other character-
istics, in the entire western region; in fact, in the whole Eskimo
territory outside of Greenland. As noted before, the size of the head
in this group is also closest to that of Greenland. These peculiar
facts indicate a problem that will call for separate consideration.
'" Including 4 female skulls collected by Collins in 1928 and received too late for general
inchLsion into these series.
BRDLirKA] PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 261
The northern and northeastern groups, with the exception of the
mesocranic Hudson Bay and Smith Sound contingents, and the very
dolichocranic Greenlanders, show dolichocrany much the same as
that of Barrow and Point Barrow.
HEIGHT or THE SKULL
This is a measurement of mucli vahie, both alone and as a sup-
plement to the cranial index, for skulls with the same index may be
high or low and thus really of a radically distinct type.
The height of the vault is best studied in its relation to the other
cranial dimensions, particularly to the mean of the length and
breadth, with both of which it correlates. But in the Eskimo it is
also of interest to compare the height with the breadth of the skull
alone. The former relation is known as the mean height index
and the latter as the height-breadth index. Both mean the per-
centage value of the basion-bregma height as comjiared to the other
dimensions.
TT
The mean height index -Tnf-f T^r~rTT\> advocated independ-
'^ (Mean of JL + B) ^
ently by the writer since 1916 (Bull. 62, Bur. Amer. Ethn., p. 116),
is proving of much value in differentiation of types and has already
become a j^ermanent feature in all writers' work on the skull.
There is a corresponding index also on the living.
In the American Indian the averages of the index range from
approximately 76 to 90. (See Catalogue of Crania, U. S. Nat. Mus.,
Nos. I and II.) Where the series of specimens are sufficiently large
the index does not differ materially in the two sexes. Indices below
80 may Jae regarded as low, those between 80 and 84 as medium,
and those above 84 as high."
The southwestern and midwestern Eskimo skulls show mean
height indices that may be characterized as moderate to slightly above
medium. In general the broader and shorter skulls show lower
indices, aj^proaching thus in all the characters of the vault the
Mongolian skulls of Asia. (Compare Catalogue Crania, U. S. Nat.
Mus., No. I.) The Indian Point, St. Lawrence Island, and Little
Diomede Island skulls are again, as with the cranial index, very close
together, strengthening the evidence that the three constitute the
same group of people. (Pis. 59, 60.)
The northwestern Eskimo and most of those of the northeast
have relatively high vault. Barrow and Point Barrow are once
more almost the same. The Point Hope group shows a high vault,
though also rather broad. The somewhat broad Hudson Bay crania
"These subdivisions are somewhat arbitrary and may, as data accumulate and are
better understood, be found to need some modification.
262
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA
[ETH. ANN. 4(5
are but moderately high, like those of the southwestern Eskimo. The
northern Arctic skulls give smaller height than would be expected
"with their type; the Southampton Island specimens give higher.
The old Igloo groujD from near Barrow stands again close to Green-
land; its skull is even a trace narrower and higher, standing in both
respects at the limits of the Eskimo. The whole, as with the cranial
index, shows evidently a rich field of evolutionary conditions.
Eskimo: Cranial Meam Height Index
(H-Floor-Line of Aud. Meatus to BgXIOO)
Mean of L + B
mean of both sexes in ascending order
Southwestern and midwestern
(11)
Togiak 81. 8
(2.5)
Nelson Island 82. 1
(6)
Southwest Alaska 82. 3
(6)
Pilot Station, Yukon 82. 3
(10)
Mumtrak 82. 5
(13)
Hooper Bay 82. 7
(116)
Nunivak Island 83. 3
(5)
Chnkchee 83. 3
(34)
Pastolik ajid Yukon Delta 83. 4
(4)
Port Clarence 83. 4
(29)
Indian Point (Siberia) 83.8
(279)
St. Lawrence Island 84. 1
(12)
Little Diomede Island 84. 5
(14)
St. Micliael Island 85. 1
Northwestern
(69)
Barrow 83. 8
(99)
Point Barrow 84. 1
Kotzebue Sound and Kobuk (2)
River 84.4
(20)
Shislimaref 84. 5
(33)
Wales 85. 0
(216)
Point Hope 85.7
(4)
Golovnin Bav-Cape Nome 85. 9
(51)
Igloos, southwest of Barrow 86. 3
Northern and northeastern
(7)
Hudson Bay and vicinity 82. 2
(15)
Northern Arctic 82. 7
(33)
Baffin Land and vicinity 84. 4
(0)
Smith Sound 85. 1
(101)
Greenland 85. 1
(15)
Soutliampton Island 85. 5
The height-breadth index - — ^^r — of the Eskimo skull shows in
substance the same conditions as did the mean height index, but
o
a.
u
a:
_]
<
3
Z
Z
•<
X
p
z
in
I)
a.
o
a.
<
Z
Z
<
>■
I-
a.
o
u.
>■
a
o
o
z
I
hrdhOka]
PHYSICAL, ANTHROPOLOGY
263
while less informative or dependable on one side, on the other it
accentuates the relative narrowness of the skull in some of the
groups.
Eskimo: Height-Breadth Index of the Skull
mean of both sexes in ascending order
Southweslern and midwestern
(12)
Togiak 91.9
(6)
Pilot Station, Lower Yukon.,- 92.8
(10)
Mumtrak 93. 1
(5)
Chukchee 93. 1
(13)
Hooper Bav 93. 2
(25)
Nelson Island 93. 7
(5)
Yukon Delta 94.7
(5)
Southwest .41aska 95. 2
(12)
Little Diomede Island 96. 3
(279)
St. Lawrence Island 96. 5
(116)
Nunivak Island 96.7
(31)
Indian Point (Siberia) 96. 7
(29)
Pastolik 96. 8
(6)
Cape Nome and Port Clarence.. 97. 0
(14)
St. Michael Island 98. 2
Northwestern
(99)
Point Barrow 98.7
(69)
Barrow 98. 8
(20)
Shishmaref 98. 9
• (216)
Point Hope 99. 2
Kotzebue Sound and Kobuk (3)
River 99.6
(33)
Wales 100. 3
(51)
Igloos, southwest of Barrow 105. 0
Northern and eastern
(7)
Hudson Bav and vicinity 95. 3
(16)
North Arctic 97. 8
(9)
Smith Sound 98. 3
(15)
Southampton Island 99-8
(33)
Baffin Land and vicinity 99. 9
(101)
Greenland 101. 8
THE FACE
The facial dimensions of the Eskimo skull offer a number of points
of unusual interest. The face is absolutely and especially relatively
to stature very large in all measurements. It is particularly high
between the upper alveolar point and nasion.
The large size of the Eskimo face will best be appreciated from
a few ficrures.
264
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA
[ETH. ANN. 46
Facial Dimensions of the Western and Otheb Eskimo Crania Compared
With Those of the Siouan and Algonquian Tribes
Southwestern and
midwestern Eskimo
Eskimo in general
Siouan
tribes
Algonquian
tribes
Mean of 14
groups
(male)
10 groups
(female)
27 groups
(male)
22 groups
(female)
12 groups
(male)
15 groups
(male)
Total height (ment.-
nas.). --
12.60
7.87
14.25
U. 06
(11. 63)
(7. 29)
(13. 27)
(10. 28)
12. 52
7.79
14.26
11.03
(11. 59)
(7. 21)
(13. 22)
(10. 22)
12. 26
7. 52
14. 16
10.84
12. 11
Upper height (alv. pt.-
iias.)
7.35
Diameter bizyg. max..
Module of upper face
(U. H. + B)
13. 89
10. 62
2
So far as known there are no larger faces among the Indians than
those of the Sioux, yet they remain very perceptiblj^, in all three
measurements, Iwhind the Eskimo. No face as large as that of the
Eskimo is known, in fact, from anywhere else in the world. In
whites the mean diameter of the largest faces (see data in Martin's
Lehrbuch Anthi-op., 789-791) does not exceed 10.36 centimeters.
The above showing assumes especial weight when it is recalled that
both the Siouan and the Algonquian tribes are among the tallest there
are on the American Continent. The cause of the large size of the
Eskimo face can only be the excessive use of the jaws; no other
reason even suggests itself. But the character may already be more
or less iiereditary. It furnishes another attractive subject for further
investigation.
With its large dimensions the face of the Eskimo skull presents
generally also large orbits, large molars, submedium prominence and
breadth of the nasal bridge, shallow suborbital (canine) fossae, large
dental arch above medium teeth, and a large and stout lower jaw
with broad not seldom more or less everted angles, giving the whole
a characteristic appearance. With partial exception of the orbits
and the nose, which are subject also to other factors, all these features
of the Eskimo face are explainable as .strengthenings resulting from
the increased function of mastication.
The main dimensions of the cranial face in the three large group-
ings of the Eskimo are given in the next table.
iinDii.KA] PHYSICAL ANTHEOPOLOGT 265
Western and Other Eskimo: Facial Dimensions in the Skull
Males
Men-
ton-
nasioD
Alve-
olar
point-
nasion
Diam
eter
bizy-
gomatic
maxi-
mum
Cranial facial
index
Total Upper
Females
Men-
ton-
nasion
Alve-
olar
point-
niision
Diam'
eter
bizy-
gomatic
maxi-
mum
Cranial facial
index
Total
Upper
Groups
Southwestern and
midwestern
Groups
Northwestern
Groups
North Arctic and
northeastern
(9)
12.60
(5)
12.58
(5)
12.22
(14)
(7)
7.73
(6)
7.69
(14)
14.25
(7)
14.23
(6)
14.32
(8)
(5)
88. S
(5)
(14)
65. S
(7)
51 i
(6)
53.7
(8)
11.63
(2)
11.55
(3)
11.61
(10)
7.29
(7)
7.19
(5)
7.13
(10)
13.27
(7)
13.18
(6)
13.15
(8)
87.7
(2)
(3)
86.7
(10)
SI 0
(7)
Si. 6
(5)
5i.2
These data show a number of interesting conditions. The heijjht
of the upper face (alveolar point-nasion) is greatest in the south-
western and midwestern groups, is slightly lower in the northwest-
erniers, and still further slightly lower in the north Arctic and the
northeast. On the other hand the facial breadth is slightly higher
in the north and east, and that although the vault has become
mostly decidedly narrower.
These facts are shown best by the upper facial index, which in the
males descends quite perceptibly in the west from the south to the
north and in the Arctic from the west to the east. In the females
there is a parallel gradual diminution in the upper facial height
from the south to the north and then east, but the facial breadth
diminishes very slightly also instead of increasing, as a result of
which the upper facial index shows only minor diiferences ; yet these
differences are in the same direction as those in the males.
These matters are involved with a number of factors — the stature,
the breadth of the vault, and the development and direct influence
of the temporal muscles, besides hereditary conditions. Their proper
study will necessitate even more — in fact, much more — material than
is now at our disposal.
The following table gives the distribution of the upper cranial
facial index in the various gi'ouiTs. Of the two indices that of the
whole face, including the lower jaw, is the less valuable; first, because
the jaw is often absent ; second, because it is influenced by the height
of the lower jaw, which does not con-elate perfectly with the upper;
and third, on account of the wear of the teeth, which in such people
as the Eskimo is very common and diminishes more or less the total
height of the face. Its averages in the three main gi-oupings have
already been given. Its figures are not very exceptional.
88253°— 30 18
266
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IS 4.LASKA.
[ETH. ANN. 46
Eskimo Skulls: Facial Index, Upper
mean of both sexes in ascending order
Southwestern and midwestern
Pilot Station, Lower Yukon.
(6)
53. 6
(5)
Cape Nome and Port Clarence. 54. 0
(10)
Hooper Bay 54.4
(9)
Mumtrak 54. 5
(93)
Nunivak Island 54. 6
(262)
St. Lawrence Island 54. 9
(8)
Togiak and vicinity 55. 0
(24)
Indian Point (Siberia) 55. 1
(23)
Nelson Island 55. 2
(4)
Southwestern Alaska 55. 4
(10)
St. Michael Island 55. 5
(25)
Pastolik 55. 7
(4)
Chukchee 55. 8
(11)
Little Diomede Island 56. 0
Norlhu'estern
(190)
Point Hope 52. 8
(2)
Kotzebue 53. 7
(17)
Shishmaref 54. 1
(42)
Igloos north of Barrow 54. 1
(41)
Barrow 54. 8
(75)
Point Barrow 55. 2
(31)
Wales 55. 4
Northern and northeastern
(9)
Smith South .. 51. 7
(14)
Southampton Island 52. 3
(23)
Baffin Land and vicinity 53. 8
(90)
Greenland 54. 1
(7)
Hudson Bay and vicinity 54. 3
(11)
Northern Arctic 56.6
The upper facial index of the Eskimo skull i.s hiph, thf)U<:h there is
considerable group variation. The reason is the height of the upper
face, for which the accompanying considerable expansion of the zygo-
matic arches does not fully compensate. In the white groups this
index ranges from approximately 50 to 54; it averages 5'2S in 15
Algonquian and 53.1 in 12 Siouan tribes. The means in the large
Eskimo groupings are from a little below 5Jf to a little over 55. Its
regional differences have already been mentioned. Sex differences
in the index are very small. There are a number of points of signifi-
cant agreement, the foremost of which is once more that in the
case of Barrow and Point Barrow, and especially that of the Old
Igloos near Barrow and Greenland.
hbdliCka]
PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
267
THE XCSE
Equally as engaging as the whole face of the Eskimo skull is the
cranial nose. Our data throw much light on this feature also.
Where the dimensions of the whole face are altered by some cause
the nose can not remain unaffected. This is especially true of its
height, which correlates directly and closely with that of the face
proper; the correlation of the breadth of the nose with that of the
face is weaker and more irregular, but not absent where not counter-
acted by other factors. Accordingly with the high Eskimo upper
face there is found also a high nose, both being the highest known
to anthropometry. But the nasal breadth, instead of responding to
the considerable facial breadth, has become smaller, until in some of
the Eskimo groups it is the smallest of all known human groups.
There is plainly another potent factor in action here. This factor
could conceivably be connected simply with the above-average growth
of the facial bones; but if this were so then individuals with smaller
development of these bones ought to have broader noses, and vice
versa. This point can readily be tested. Taking the largest and best
cranial series, that of St. Lawrence Island, and selecting the skulls
with the smallest and the largest faces, the facts come out as follows :
Smallest development of face
Largest development of face
Face height
(upper)
Face
breadth
Breadth of
nasal aper-
ture
Face height
Face
breadth
Breadth of
nasa! aper-
ture
10 males. _
7.52
6.81
13.64
12.56
2.37
2.37
22. Jt
8.46
7. 54
14.79
14.02
2. 49
10 females , -
2. 40
Percentage relation of
breadth of nose to
mean diameter of
face:
Male
21.4
22.2
Female
1
The above data show that while the narrow nose in the Eskimo is
to some extent affected by the large development in these people of
the facial bones, yet there must be also other factors.
But if not wholly connected with the development of the facial
bones, then some of the causes of the narrow nose in the Eskimo must
either be inherited from far back or must be due to influences outside
the face itself.
Pushing the character far back would be no explanation of its
original cause, but it may be shown that such a procedure would not
be justified. In the following important table are given the now
available data on the breadth of the nasal aperture of the Eskimo,
268
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SXJKVEY IN ALASKA
[ETH. ANN". 46
group by group and area by area, and these data show that narrow
nose is by no means universal in this family. The nasal aperture
is broader in the southwest and midwest than in the northwest, and
broader in the latter region than in the Arctic north and the north-
east. In general it is seen that the farther northward and north-
eastward the narrower the nose, until it reaches beyond that of all
other human groups; while in the west and southwest it gradually
ajiproaches until it reaches the nasal breadth of the Indian. And
that this latter condition is not due to Indian admixture is shown
by the fact that among the broadest noses are those of the Eskimo
in Siberia and those on the St. Lawrence Island, where there was
no known contact with the Indian, while the narrower noses are
along the midwestern coast, where Indian admixture might have
been possible.
Eskimo : Breadth of the Nasal Apeetuke
both sexes taken together in descending order
Southwestern and midwestern
(5)
Southwestern Alaska 2. 50
(31)
Indian Point (Siberia) 2. 48
(5)
Chukchee 2. 47
(6)
Pilot Station, Lower Yukon 2. 45
(280)
St. Lawrence Island 2. 42
(29)
Pastolik 2. 41
(13)
Hooper Bav 2.39
(10)
Mumtrak 2.38
Cape Nome and Port Clarence.
Nelson Island
Togiak and vicinity
Yukon Delta
Nunivak Island
Little Diomede Island
St. Michael Island
}iorth ivcstern
(3)
Kotzebue 2. 41
(34)
Wales 2. 37
(20)
Shishmaref 2. 36
(56)
Barrow 2.35
Point Hope
Point Barrow
Igloos, north of Barrow.
Northern and northeastern
(9)
Smith Sound 2.29
(15)
Northern Arctic 2. 26
(14)
Southampton Island 2. 25
Baffin Land and vicinity..
Greenland
Hudson Bay and vicinity.
(6)
2.38
(23)
2.37
(9)
2.36
(4)
2.34
(107)
2.33
(11)
2.32
(13)
2. 21
(211)
2.33
(92)
2. 30
(48)
2.30
(29)
2. 25
(98)
2.23
(7)
2. 19
HRDLICKA]
PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
269
It is hardly ijossible. therefore, to assume that a narrow nose is an
ancient inheritance of the Eskimo. From the facts now at hand it
seems much more probable that the Eskimo nose or respiratory nasal
aperture was not originally very narrow, but that it gradually
acquired this character as the people extended farther north and
northeastward; and there appears to be but one potent factor that
could influence this development and that increases from south to
north, namely, cold. A narrowing of the aperture can readily be
understood as a jjrotective development for the throat and the organs
of respiration.
It is not easy to see how the bony structures respond to the eifects of
cold or heat, but that they do, particularly where these are aggravated
by moisture, has long been appreciated, and shown fairly con-
clusively through studies on the nasal index by Thomson and later
by Thomson and Buxton."" An even more satisfactory study would
have been that of the nasal breadth alone. Perhaps the normal
variation with the elimination of the less fit are the main agencies.
The next two tables show other interesting conditions. The first
of these, seen best from the more general data, are the relations of
the nasal dimensions and index in the two sexes. The females in
all the three large groupings have a higher nasal index than the
males. Tliis is a general condition among the Indians as well as in
other races. It is usually due to a relative shortness of the female
nose. This condition is very plain in the Eskimo. The female nose
is actually narrower than the male, due to correlation with shorter
stature and lesser facial breadth, yet the index is higher. The reason
can most simply be shown by comparing the genei'al mean nasal
breadth and height in the two sexes. The breadth in the female is
approximately 96.2 per cent of that in the male; the height is only
92.7 per cent.
Nasal Dimensions in Western and Other Eskimo Crania
Males
Females
Height
Breadth
Index
Height
Breadth
(10)
2.32
Index
Groups - -
(14)
5.46
(14)
2. 42
(14)
44.3
(10)
5.06
(10)
Southwestern and mid-
western --
45.8
Groups
(7)
.5.42
(")
2.37
(7)
43. 7
(6)
5.06
(6)
2.30
(6)
Northwestern
45. 4
Groups ._ .
(6)
5.38
(6)
2.28
(6)
4^.4
(5)
4.95
(5)
2. 18
(5)
Northern Arctic and
northeastern
44-0
"" Thomson, Arthur, The correlation of isotherms with variations in the nasal index.
Proc. Seventeenth Intern. Cong. Med,, London, 1913, Sec. I, Anatomy and Embryology,
pt. II, S9 ; Thomson. Arthur, and Buxton, L. H. D., Man's nasal index in relation to cer-
tain climatic conditions, Journ. Koy. Anthrop. Inst., Liii, 92-122, London, 1923. Addi-
tional references in these publications ; also in the latter an extensive list of data on
nasal index in many parts of the world.
270
ANTHBOPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA
(ETH. AXN. 46
Detailed group data on the nasal index show that this ranges from
47.7 on the Yukon to Jfl.S in the northernmost contingent of the
Eskimo at Smith Sound. The Kotzebue group that shows even a
higher index than on the Yukon is too small to have much weight.
Barrow and Point Barrow are once more nearly the same, as are the
Old Igloos and Greenland; and there are some other interesting
relations.
Eskimo Skulls : Nasal Index
both sexes taken together in descending order
Southwestern and midwestern
(6)
Pilot Station, Lower Yukon 47. 7
(5)
Southwestern Alaska 47. 5
(31)
Indian Point (Siberiaj 46. 5
(13)
Hooper Bav 46. 2
(6)
Cape Nome and Port Clarence _ . 46. 0
(280)
St. Lawrence Island 46. 8
(5)
Chukchee 45. 6
(10)
Mumtrak 45. 2
(107)
Nunivak Island 45. 1
(9)
Togiak and vicinity 45. 0
(29)
Pastolik :. 44.9
(23)
Nelson Island 44.6
(11)
Little Dioniede Island 44. 5
(13)
St. Michael Island 42. 9
(4)
Yukon Delta 42.7
North western
(3)
Kotzebue 49. 0
(20)
Shishmaref 46. 0
(34)
Wales 45. 3
(211)
Point Hope 44. 9
(56)
Barrow and vicinity 44. 0
(48)
Igloos north of Barrow 44.0
(92)
Point Barrow 43. 5
Northern and nortlieastern
(7)
Hudson Bay and vicinity 44. 6
(16)
North Arctic 44. 1
(29)
Baffin Land and vicinity 43. 8
(98)
Greenland 43. 6
(14)
Southampton Island 43. 0
(9)
Smith Sound --- 41. 8
THE ORBITS
In many American groups the orbits are notoriously variable, yet
their mean dimensions and index are of value.
UHDLIc'KA]
PHYSICAL ANTHROrOLOGY
271
Tlie EsskiiiKi dibits have lon<i; been known lor their ample propor-
tions. Their mean heiglit and breadth are hiryer than those of any
other known people and the excess is especially apparent when pro-
portioned to stature. Taking the family as a whole, the mean height
of the two orbits in males averages approximately 3.64 centimeters,
the mean breadth 4.03 centimeters; while the males of 23 Algonquian
tribes give for the same items 3.42 and 3.93, and those of 12 Siouan
tribes 3.58 and 3.96 centimeters.
The general averages for the female E.skimo approach for orbital
height 3.52 centimeters, for breadth 3.89 centimeters, dimensions
which also surpass those in the females of any other known human
group.
These large dimensions of the Eskimo orbit are, however, on closer
examination into the matter, found not to be racial characters except
m a secondary way. They are the direct consequence of the high and
broad face. The correlation of the orbital height and breadth with
the height and breadth of the face are shown by the following
figures. These figures indicate also some additional details of
interest.
Eskimo Orbits: Right and Left
MALES
Height
Eight Left
Breadth
Eight U'tt
Index
Eight Left
St. Lawrence Island
Nunivak Island
Point Hope
Greenland
(145)
3. 67 3. 68
(41)
3. 59 3. 59
(120)
3. 63 3. 63
(46)
3. 64 3. 65
(145)
4, 05 4. 01
(41)
4. 05 4. —
(120)
4. 05 4. 01
(46)
4. 02 3. 96
(145)
90. 7 91. 8
(41)
88. 7* 89.7
(120) ■
89. 6 90. 5
(46)
90. 6 92. 1
FEMALES
St. Lawrence Island
Nunivak Island
Point Hope
Greenland
(128)
3.
62 3.
(58)
60
3.
50 3.
(70)
52
3.
54 3.
(45)
54
3.
55 3.
56
(128)
3.
92 3.
(58)
89
3.
88 3.
(70)
84
3.
91 3.
(45)
88
3.
86 3.
83
(128)
91. 7 93. 6
(m
90. 2 91. 8
(70)
90. 5 91. 4
(45)
91. 9 92. 9
272
AJTTHKOPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA
[ETH. ANN. 46
The general orbital index of the Eskimo is close to 90 in the
males, 90.5 in the females. Such orbits are classed as also relatively
high or 77iegaseme, a character in which they resemble many of the
American Indians. Thus the male crania of the Siouan tribes give
the practically identical general index of 90.o.
The slightly higher index in the females is the rule to which there
are but few exceptions, and those in individual groups where the
numbers of specimens may not be sufficient. The same tendency is
observable in the Indians, and appears in fact to be panhuman. It
is due to slightly lesser relative height as compared to the breadth
of the orbit in the males, which condition is due in all probability
to the greater development in the males of the frontal sinuses and
supraorbital arches.
Eskimo Crania: Dimensions of the Orbits in Relation to Those of the
Face
orbital heiont versus upper facial height
Males
(10)
Lowest faces (7.2-7.4)
(10)
Average faces (7.8)
(10)
Highest faces (8.4-9)
Face
Orbits
Face
Orbits
Face
Orbits
7.37
3.62
7.80
3.65
8.55
3.78
Females
(10)
Lowest faces (6.4-6.8)
•
(10)
Average faces (7.3)
(14)
Highest faces (7.8-8.4)
Face
Orbits
Face
Orbits
Face
Orbits
6. 69
3. 54
7. 30
3. 56
7.89
3.67
PERCENTAGE RELATIONS OF ORBITS TO FACE
49. 1
46. S
44.2
53
48. 7
46. 6
HRDLldKAl
PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
273
Eskimo Crania: Dimensions of the Orbits in Relation to Those of the
Face — Continued
ORBITAL BREADTH VERSUS FACIAL BREADTH
Males
CO)
Narrowest faces (13.4 and
below)
(17)
Average faces (14.2)
(10)
Broadest faces (14.9 and
above)
Face
Orbits
Face Orbits
Face
Orbits
, 13. 30
3.96
14. 20
4.01
15. 11
4. 17
Females
(10)
Narrowest faces (12.7 and
below)
(14)
Average faces (13.3)
(10)
Broadest faces (13.9 and
above)
Face
Orbits
Face
Orbits
Face
Orbits
12. 57
3. 74
13. 30
3.88
14.09
3. 98
PERCENTAGE RELATIONS OF ORBITS TO FACE
29. S
28.4
28.2
29.8
29.2
27.6
Individual variation in the orbital index of the Eskimo is ex-
tensive, reaching from slightlj' below SO to well over 100. It ex-
tends more or less over the whole Eskimo area, without conveying
definite indication anywhere of either a mixture or of a special evolu-
tionary tendency. Yet it occasions group differences that eventually
might prove evolutionary, though they maj' merely rejaresent the
next or higher order of variability, namely, that of groups within
a family.
Orbital Dimensions and Index in Eskimo Skulls
Males
Females
Area
Mean
height
Mean
breadth
Mean in-
dex
Mean
height
Mean
breadth
Mean in-
dex
(13)
(13)
(13)
(13)
(13)
(13)
South and midwestern.
3.63
4.01
90. 6
3.56
3.87
92. 1
(6)
(6)
(6)
= (6)
(6)
(6)
Northwestern
3.62
(5)
4.02
(5)
90. 1
(5)
3.61
(5)
3.92
(5)
89. 7
(5)
Northern Arctic and
northeastern
3. 65
4. 07
89.5
3.54
3. 91
90.6
274
ANTHHOPOLOGICAL SUKVEY IK ALASKA
[ETH. ANN. 46
The jrroup diiFerences in the orbital index of the Eskimo skull are
shown in the next table. They elude a satisfactory explanation, un-
less recourse is had to the above suggested tiieory of normal group
variability within a family. They have about the same range in
the three large areas, which would seem to .support this theory.
Group relations are indicated in the cases of Pastolik- Yukon Delta-
St. Micliael Island; Point Barrow-Barrow; and Old Igloos-Green-
land.
Eskimo Skulls: Mean Index of the Orbits
both sexes t.vken together in ascending order «
Southwestern and midweslern
(10)
Mumtrak 88. 4
(11)
Little Diomede Island 89. 4
(6)
Cape Nome and Port Clarence.. 89.7
(101)
Nunivak Island 90. 1
(31)
Indian Point (Siberia) 90. 3
(5)
Chukchee 90. 6
(6)
Pilot Station, Lower Yukon 91. 0
(5)
Southwest Alaska 91. 4
(271)
St. Lawrence Island 91. 7
(24)
Nelson Island 91. 9
(13)
Hooper Bay 92. 5
(29)
Pastolik 93. 2
(7)
Togiak 93. 3
(4)
Yukon Delta 93.8
(13)
St. Michaellslaud 94.4
Northwestern
(3)
Kotzebue 86. 1
(20)
Shishmaref 88. 9
(34)
Wales 89. 4
(85)
Point Barrow 90. 3
(200)
Point Hope 90.4
(53)
Barrow 91. 1
(43)
Igloos north of Barrow 91. 1
Northern and northeastern
(9)
Smith Sound 87.6
(13)
Southampton Island 88. 4
(28)
Baffin Land and vicinity 90. 0
(16)
Northern Arctic 91.0
(94)
Greenland 91. 6
(7)
Hudson Bay and vicinity 92. 3
HnDLlCKA]
PHYSICAL ANTHIiOPOLOGY
275
THE UPPEK AL^'EOLAK ARCH
The dental arches correlate with function (use), with stature, with
the dimensions of the face, and with those of the teeth. The western
as well as other Eskimo show arches that ai"e about equal in absolute
dimensions to those of our taller Indians, such as the Munsee, Arkan-
sas, and Louisiana:" but^ relatively to stature the Eskimo arch is
decidedly larger.
The upper dental arch index ( — ^ — - ), now being used in pref-
erence to the unwieldy " uranic index " ( — j j of Turner, is
rather high, showing that the arch is relatively, as well as abso-
lutely, broad. The same index in the Munsee averaged in the males
82.S, in the females 82.7; in the Arkansas and Louisiana mound skulls
84-4 in the males and 85.1 in the females. Data are needed here for
more extensive comparisons.
Eskimo Crani.\: Alveol.\r .\rch
11 groups:
Southwestern and
midnestern
6 groups:
Northwestern
5 groups:
Northern Arctic
and northeast-
ern
Males
External
length
5. 56
5.63
5.68
External
breadth
6.66
6. 61
6.75
Module
imean
diam-
eter)
6. 11
6. 12
6.21
Index
LXlOO
53. 5
85. 1
54. 2
Females
External External
length breadth
5.34
5.38
5.37
6.38
6.31
6.28
Module
tmean)
(diam-
eter)
5.86
5.85
5.83
Index
LXlOO
8S.8
86. Z
85.6
•° See Bull, 62, Bur. Am. Ethn., and writer's Report on an Additional Collection of
Skeletal Remains from Arkansas and Louisiana, published with Clarence B. Moore's report
on the .\ntiqulties o£ the Ouachita Valley, Philadelphia, 190S.
276
ANTHROPOLOGICAL, StTRVEY IN ALASKA
[ETH. ANN. 46
Eskimo Skulls: Length-Breadth Index of the Upper Alveolar Arch
both sexes taken together in ascending order
Southwestern and midwestern
(5)
Pilot Station, Lower Yukon 79. 4
(8)
Togiak and vicinity 80. 6
(4)
Chukchee 81. 1
(12)
Hooper Bay 81. 7
(9)
Mumtrak 81. 7
(9)
Little Diomede Island 82. 2
(234)
St. Lawrence Island 83. 0
(10)
St. Michael Island 84.3
(22)
Pastolik* 84. 4
(90)
Nunivak Island 84. 4
(4)
Southwest Alaska 84. 7
(5)
Cape Nome and Port Clarence- _ 84. 9
(22)
Indian Point (Siberia) 85.0
(22)
Nelson Island 85. 5
North western
(39)
Igloos north of Barrow 84. 1
(14)
Shishmaref 84. 4
(171)
Point Hope 84. 6
(31)
Wales 84. 9
(38)
Barrow 85. 8
^ (66)
Point Barrow 87. 1
Northern and northeastern
' (9)
Smith Sound 82. 7
(13)
Southampton Island 83. 7
(7)
Hudson Bav and vicinity 84. 4
(23)
Baffin Land and vicinity 85. 7
(89)
Greenland 85. 9
(10)
Northern Arctic 86. i
Sex differences in tlie index are small, nevertheless the females
tend to show a slightly higher index, due to relatively slightly
smaller breadth of the arch.
The size of the arch and its index differ but little over the three
main areas of the Eskimo territory, yet there are slight differences.
They appear plainly in the following table. Notwithstanding the
fact that on the whole the southwestern and midwestern groups are
somewhat taller than those of the far north and northeast, the largest
palate, in the males at least, is found in the latter area.
In the southwest and midwest the upper alveolar arch is rela-
tively (as well as absolutely, barring one group) somewhat broad and
short. This may be in correlation with the broader head in this
area, just as the absolutely slightly longer palates over the rest of the
Eskimo territory and particularly (in males) in the northeast may
correlate with the longer heads in those regions. This point may be
HRDI.ldKA]
PHYSICAL .ANTHROPOLOGY
277
tested on our splendid material from St. Lawrence Island. Takinor
the broadest and the narrowest skulls from this locality, the follow-
ing data are obtained for the proportions of the upper dental arch :
Eskimo Cbania : Dental Aech and Form of Skull
st. lawrence island material
Length
Breadth .^
Index
Mean diameter
Mean cranial diameter (cranial
module) of same skulls
Percentage relation of mean
dental arch diameter to the
mean diameter of the skull.
Length of same skulls
Percentage relation of length
of dental arch to that of skull.
Males
Females
Narroi
(C.L
Test skulls
70.7-7.3.5)
5. 68
6.83
83.3
6.26
15. 61
AO.l
19. 21
29.5
Broadest i Narrowest
skulls (80.6- I skulls (70.3-
83.1) 74.2)
5.58
6.77
83. 4
6. 18
15. 49
39. S
18. 10
30. 8
5.52
6. 66
83. 9
6. 09
14. 97
40. 7
18.35
30. 1
Broadest
skulls (80.9-
83.8)
5. 20
6. 36
83. 7
5.78
14 73
39. 3
17. 25
30. 1
The above figures show several conditions. The first is that the
arch is quite distinctly larger in the narrow than in the broad skulls
in both sexes. The second fact is that the skull (vault) itself is
slightly larger in the narrow-headed. The third is that the length of
the arch is somewhat greater in the narrow and long skulls than it is
in the broad and shorter, relatively to the skull size. The fourth is
that there appears a close correlation, more particularly in the
females, between the length of the arch and that of the skull.
THE BASION-NASIOX DIAMETER
The anterior basal length (basion-nasion) is a measurement of
importance, though its full meaning in anthropology is not yet
entirely clear. From data quoted by Martin (Lehrb., 715-716) it
appears to average in whites up to 10.3 centimeters in males and up
to 10.1 centimeters in females, and is known to correlate closely with
the length of the vault. Secondarily it also correlates with stature.
Data on American Indians are not yet generally available, though
in preparation. The Munsee skulls gave the writer for the diameter
the means of 10.27 for the males and 10.02 for the females; the
•mound skulls from Arkansas and Louisiana gave 10.45 for the males
and 9.77 for the females.
278
ANTHKOPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA
[ETH. ANN. 46
An abstract of the data on the Eskimo skulls is given in the next
table. The values for the measurement are rather high, especially
for such short people. The percentage relation of the measurement
to the length of the skull appears also to be high. Manouvrier (1882,
quoted in Martin, Lehrb.. 716) found this relation in French skulls
to be 53.6 in the males and SJ-f.T in the females.
E.sKiM" Crania: r{ASi(iN'-NA.sioN Length
Groups of males
Corresponding groups of
females
Ba.sion-
nasion
diameter
Its i-»er-
centage re-
lation to
length of
skull
Basion-
nasion
diameter
Its per-
centage re-
lilion to
lent'th of
skuil
Southwestern and miflwestern. _
(13)
10.38
(6)
10. 58
(5)
10. 65
(13)
66. 4
(6)
56. i
(5)
56.2
(13)
9. 85
(6)
10.06
(5)
10. 06
(13)
■55. 7
Northwestern
(6)
56.3
Northern Arctic and northeastern
(5)
56.4
The female measurement to that of the male, in the Eskimo, is
as 94..9 to 100. As a similar relation of the cranial modules in the
two sexes is close to 95.7, the anterior basal length would seem to be at
a little disadvantage in the female Eskimo skull.
The same condition is seen also when the basion-nasion diameter
is compared with the length of the skull. In the males, notwith-
standing the fact that the length of the vault is increased through the
development of the frontal sinuses and not infrequently also through
that of the occipital ridges, the percentage relation of the basion-
nasion to tiie maximum total length of tlie vault is approximately
56.3, in the females but 55.8. It seems therefore safe to say that in
the Eskimo, in general, that part of the brain anterior to the fora-
men magnum is relatively somewhat better developed in the males
than in the females.
But to this there are some exceptions. Thus it may be seen in the
general table which follows that in the northwestern groups condi-
tions in this respect are equalized; and in the succeeding detailed
table it will be noted that while the males exceed the females in this
particular in 14 of the groups, in 5 groups conditions are equal (or
within one decimal), and in 5 the female percentage exceeds slightly
that in the males. In the numerically best represented groups condi-
tions are neai-ly equal, with the males nevertheless slightly favored.
hbdliCka]
PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
279
Eskimo Skulls: Basion-Nasion Length and Its Relation to Length
OF Skull
SEXES SEPARATELY IN ASCENDING ORDER
Males
Females
BNXIOO
B N- Skull 1
BNXIOO
'^ ^- Skull 1
Southwestern and midwestern
Little Diomede Island _
(4)
10. 18 56. 2
(3)
10. 20 .5^ 8
(3)
10. 27 5J,. 3
(9)
10.29 57.6
(4)
10. 32 67
(146)
10. 36 56. 3
(3)
10. 37 55. 8
(11)
10. 41 56. 5
(8)
10. 44 57. 3
(9)
10.46 56.8
(3)
10. 47 67. 2
(3)
10.47 67.6
(15)
10. 54 66. 6
(46)
10. 55 56. 1
(2)
10. 45 67. 3
(133)
10. 48 57
(12)
10. 50 66. 8
(47)
10. 54 56. 2
(35)
10. 61 66. 9
(19)
10. 64 56. 7
(27)
10.70 55.6-
(7)
9. 91 61 9
Chukchee -. . ..
(2)
10. 00 61 8
Pilot Station (Yukon)... ...
(3)
9. 97 56
Hooper Bay.
(4)
9. 70 56. 7
Mumtrak
(6)
9. 52 65. 1
St. Lawrence Island .. _ _. .
(133)
9. 93 66. 1
Yukon Delta
Pastolik ... .. .
(18)
9. 98 56. 3
St. Michael Island
(6)
9. 98 66. 3
Nelson Island
(15)
9. 73 65. 9
Togiak.. . . . ... _.
(7)
9.56 56.7
Southwestern Alaska ._ .
(2)
9.80 5Jf.8
Indian Point and Puotin
(16)
9. 97 56. 6
Nunivak Island. .......
(69)
10. 02 56
Northwestern
Kotzebue
Point Hope .. ._
(82)
10. 00 66. 9
Shishmaref . .
(8)
10.20 57.5
Point Barrow . . .
(52)
9. 94 56. 5
Barrow
(34)
10. 01 66. 3
Wales . .
(15)
la 01 65. 5
Igloos north of Barrow
(24)
10. 18 66. 2
280
ANTHROPOLOGICAL, SURVEY IN ALASKA
[ETH. ANN. 46
Eskimo Skulls: Basion-Nasion Length and Its Relation to Length op
Skull — Continued
SEXES SEPARATELY IN ASCENDING ORDER
Males
B-N.
BNXIOO
SkuUl
Females
B-N.
BNXIOO
Skull 1
Northern and northeastern
Baffin Land and vicinity
Hudson Bay and vicinity
Greenland
Northern Arctic
Smith Sound
Southampton Island
(16)
(17)
10. 51 S5. 6
10. 11 5S.2
(5)
(2)
10. 60 56. Jt
9. 75 55. 6
(48)
(52)
10. 60 55. 9
10. 13 56. 2
(5)
(10)
10. 68 56. 1
10.07 65.3
(7)
10. 70 56. 4
(9)
(5)
10. 83 57. 3
10. 34 56. 9
An interesting point is that in the north and nortlieast, where the
skulls are longest, there is evidently a slightly greater relative de-
velopment of the occipital portion of the vault, or slightly lesser
development of the frontal portion.
Some additional points of interest appear when the basion-nasion :
skull-length index, taken collectively for the two sexes, is compared
in the different groups. All these comparisons suffer, naturally,
from unevenness and often insufficiency of thei numbers of specimens,
yet some of the results are very harmonious with those brought out
repeatedly by other data. Thus the St. Lawrence material stands
once more close to the medium of the southwestern and midwestern
groups ; Barrow and Point Barrow are almost identical ; and so are
the Old Igloos from near Barrow and Greenland. The St. Michael
islanders show very favorably in the midwest, the Shishmarefs in
the northwest and the Southampton islanders in the northeast.
HEDLIOKA]
PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
281
Eskimo Skulls: Basion-Nasion Line m Relation to Skull Length
/BNX100\
\ Sh J
BOTH SEXES TOQETHER IN ASCENDING ORDER
Southwestern and midwestern
(5)
Chukchee 54 8
(6)
Pilot Station, Lower Yukon 65. 2
(11)
Little Diomede Island 55. 6
(24)
Nelson Island 55. 9
(115)
Nunivak Island 56.0
(10)
Mumtrak 56. 1
(279)
St. Lawrence Island 56. 2
(5)
Southwestern Alaska 56. 2
(29)
Pastolik 56. 4
(10)
Togiak 56. 5
(31)
Indian Point and vicinity
(Siberia) 56. 5
(13)
Hooper Bay 56. 6
(14)
St. Michael Island 56. 8
Northwestern
(51)
Igloos southwest of Barrow 55.9
(99)
Point Barrow 55.9
(69)
Barrow 56.1
(34)
Wales 56. 1
(215)
Point Hope 57.0
(20)
Shishmaref 57. 1
Northern and northeastern
(33)
Baffin Land and vicinity 55. 4
(10)
Northern Arctic 55. 7
(7)
Hudson Bay and vicinity 56. 0
(100)
Greenland 56. 1
(7)
Smith Sound (male) 56. 4
(14)
Southampton Island 57. 1
The next table gives the percentage relations of the basion-nasion
diameter to the mean diameter of the skull. The correlation of the
two is even closer than in the case of the skull length, and the
grouping, while in the main alike, seems in general even more in
harmony with that in previous comparisons. The St. Lawrence
Island females are very exceptional, as was also apparent in other
connections. The unusual smallness of their skull (compare section
on Cranial module) is evidently due to a poor development of its
posterior half.
88253°— 30 1!4
282
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA
[ETH. ANN'. 46
Eskimo Crania : Percentage Relation of the Basion-Nasion Diameter to
Mean Cranial Diameter (Cranial Module)
'BNX100^
/BNX100\
V CM ^
BOTH SEXES TOGETHER IN ASCENDING ORDER
Southwestern and midwcstern Northwestern
Pilot Station, Yukon..
Chukehee
Little Diomede Island -
65.6
66.0
... 66. 1
Hooper Bay 66. 4
Nelson Island 66. 7
Togiak 66.9
Southwest Alaska 67. 3
Indian Point, Siberia 67. 4
Mumtrak
Nunivak Island
Pastoli k
St. Michael Island
St. Lawrence Island:
Male
67.4
67. 6
67.6
68. 0
67.2
Female (69.6)
Wales
Point Barrow.
Point Hope
Barrow
67.7
67.8
68.1
68.4
Old Igloos 69.0
Shishmaref 69. 2
Northern Arctic and northeastern
Baffin Land 67.4
Hudson Bay 67. 6
Smith Sound (male) 67. 6
North Arctic 68. 1
Greenland 68.5
Southampton Island 68. 7
PROGNATHISM
Since better understood, the subject of facial prognathism has lost
much of its allure in anthrojDology ; yet the matter is not wholly with-
out interest.
Facial protrusion is as a rule secondary to and largely caused by
alveolar protrusion, which in turn is caused by the size and shape of
the dental arch ; and the dental arch is generally proportional to the
size of the teeth. The form of the arch is, liowever, quite influential.
With the teeth identical in size a narrow arch will be more, a broad
arch less jirotruding, and a narrow arch with small teeth may pro-
trude more than a broad one with larger teeth. Another influence
is that of the height of the upper face, the same arch jjrotruding more
in a low face than in a high one. And still another factor is the in-
cline of the front teeth, though this affects merely the appearance of
prognathism and not its measurements.
There are different ways of measuring facial prognathism, and
with sufficient care all may be effective; I prefer, for practical
reasons, linear measurements fi-om the basion, which, together with
the facial and subnasal heights, give triangles that can readily be
reconstructed on paper and allow a direct measurement of both the
facial and the alveolar angle. The three needed diameters from
basion are taken, the first to the " prealveolar point," or the nwst
anterior point on the upper dental arch above the incisors; the sec-
ond to the "subnasal point," or the point on the left (for con-
venience) of the nasal aperture, where the outer part of its border
passes into that which belongs to the subnasal portion of the maxilla
hbdliCea]
PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
283
(the point where the subnasal slant begins) ; and the third to nasion.
The facial heifiht is that from the alveolar point {lowest point of
the upper alveolar border in the median line) to nasion; while for
the subnasal height, wliicli can not be measured directly, I utilize
the difference between the facial and nasal heights, which is very
close to the needed dimension.
The important basion-nasion diameter has already been considered.
That to the subnasal point needs no comment. That to the prealveo-
lar point shows in the western and other Eskimo as follows :
Eskimo Crania : Basion-Prealveolab Point Diameter
All Eskimo
Males:
Mean diameter centimeters.. 10. 54
Mean relation to length of skull per cent. _ 66. 3
Females:
Diameter centimeters. . 9. 99
Relation per cent.. 56. 8
MALES
A = Basion prealveolar point diameter
B = Its relation to length of skull
Southwestern and
midwestern
Northwestern
Northern Arctics
and northeastern
A B
10. 38 56. 4
18. 41
A B A B
10. 58 56. 4 10. 65 56. 2
Mean skull lengths
18. 75 1 18. 96
females
9. 85 56. 7 1 10. 06 56. 3 \ 10. 06 55. A
Mean skull lengths
17. 69 17. 86 1 18. 15
As in other details, so here there is a remarkable similarity between
the skulls from the three large areas, pointing both to the unity of
the people and to absence of heterogeneous admixtures. As the
skull length increases so does the basi-alveolar line, but the relative
proportions of the two remain very nearly the same.
The relative value of the basi-alveolar length in the males, com-
pared to the length of the skull, is in general about 0..5 per cent
higher than it is in the females. This is just about the excess of the
relative proportion of the length of the male dental arch when com-
pared to the same skull dimension. The general mean skull length
in the Eskimo male approximates 18.705, in female 17.899 centi-
meters; the mean length of the arch is, in the male, close to 5.625,
in the female 5.365 centimeters; and the percentage relation of the
latter to the former is 30.6 in the males, 30 in the females. The
relatively slightly greater basi-alveolar length in the males is evi-
dently, therefore, at least partly due to the relatively longer male
284 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ann. 46
dental arch, which in turn is doubtless due to the somewhat larger
teeth in the males. ^^
Notwithstanding the just discussed slight sex difference in the
Eskimo, the facial angle, i. e., the angle between the basi-alveolar line
and the line nasion-alveolar point, is equal in the two sexes. This
equalization is due largely, if not wholly, to the effect in the males
of the relatively longer basio-nasion diameter (v. a.), while the
alveolar angle, or that between the basi-alveolar and the subnasal
lines, is in general by about 1 per cent lower in the females (males,
56° ; females, 55°), indicating a slightlj^ greater slant of the subnasal
region in the female, which can only be due to a relatively slightly
shorter in this sex of the basion-subnasal point diameter. As a matter
of fact, the percentage relation of this diameter to the length of the
skull amounts in the males to 56.3, in the females to but 55.6.
Compared to that in the Indians, the facial angle in the Eskimo
skulls shows close aiSnities. Its value (69°) is very nearly the same
as in the mound skulls from Arkansas and Louisiana (males 70.7°,
females 69°). In other Indians it ranges from close to 68° to 71.5°.
In the Munsee it reached 73.5°. In whites, according to Rivet's
data," it ranges from about 72° to 75° ; in a gi-oup of negroes it was
68.5°. In American and other negro crania measured by me ^^ it
ranged from 67° to 70.5°, in Melanesians from 66° to 68°, in Aus-
tralians from 67° to 69°.
The alveolar angle is more variable. It shows considerable indi-
vidual, sex, and gi-oup differences. It averages slightly to moder-
ately higher, which means a more open angle or less slant in the males
than in the females. In the Eskimo as a whole it was seen to be
approximately 56° in the males, 55° in the females; in the Munsee
Indians (Bull. 62, Bur. Amer. Ethn.) it was males 59°, females
57° ; in the Arkansas and Louisiana skulls (J. Ac. Sci., Phila., 1909,
XIV) it averaged males 55°, females 52°. In my catalogue material
it shows a group variation of 46.5° to 55.5° in the negro, 47.5°
to 52.5° in the Australians, 46.5° to 50.5° in the Melanesians. In the
whites it generally exceeds 60°.
Differences in facial and alveolar protrusion among the Eskimo
according to area are small, yet they are not wholly absent. The
figures below show that in the southwesterners and midwesterners,
where the skull is more rounded, the prognathism is smallest; and
that toward the north and northeast, where the skull is narrower
and the palate (dental arch) tends to become longer, prognathism
increases. The " Old Igloo " group shows once more such affinity with
the Greenlanders that it is placed with the third subdivision.
" Compare writer's Varintion in the dimensions of lower molars in man and anthropoid
apes. Am. J. Phys. Anthrop., TI, 423-438. Washington. 1923.
"= Kivet, P., Recherches sur le prognathisme. L'Anthropologie, xx, pp. 35, 175 ; Paris,
1909. XXI, pp. 505. 637. 1910.
" Cat. Crania, U. S. Nat. Mus., etc., No. 3. Washington, 1928, 88, 105. 139.
HRDLI(-KA] PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 285
Eskimo Skulls: Facial and Alveolar Angle with Principal Areas
Groups
Facial angle
Alveolar angle -
Males
South- and
midwest
(13)
68
55
Northwest
(5)
69
56
North and
northeast
(6)
70
55
Females
South- and Northwest ^O'^^ and
midwest J^wthwest northeast
(13)
67. 5
54
(5)
69
55
(6)
70
54.5
Individual group differences in the facial and alveolar angle are
moderate, yet evidently not negligible. (See next table.) The most
prognathic, especially in the siibnasal region, are the skulls from
Nelson Island. A marked alveolar slant is also present in the Pilot
Station Yukon group, and in Greenland. The least prognathic are
the St. Michael Islanders, the Point Hope people, and those from
Southampton Island. St. Lawrence stands once more near the
middle of the southwesterners and midwesterners, and there are to be
seen the principal old relations.
The main points shown by the above conditions are the group
variability, particularly in the southwest and midwest; the tendency,
on the whole, toward a slightly greater prognathy, both facial and
alveolar, in this same area; and the evidence that the alveolar slant
has some individuality.
Eskimo SKtnxs : Groitp Conditions in Facial and Alveolab Angle ""
South and midwest
Facial
angle
Alveolar
angle
(20)
Nelson Island 66.3 51.5
(4)
Southwest Alaska 66.8 54.5
(4)
Chukchee 66.8 57.0
(21)
Indian Point 67. 0 56. 5
(8)
Togiak 67.0 54.0
(242)
St. Lawrence Island 67. 8 55. 3
(86)
Nunivak Island 67.8 56.5
(23)
PastoUk 68.3 54.8
(10)
Hooper Bay 68. 3 55. 3
(10)
Little Diomede Island. 68. 5 57. 5
(9)
Mumtrak 68.8 55.3
(5)
Pilot Station, Yukon.. 68.8 52.0
(10)
St. Michael Island 70. 0 56. 8
Northwest
Sledge Island 69.5
Facial Alvenlar
angle angle
(11)
54.9
(31)
Wales 67.8 56.0
(17)
Shishmaref 68.3 55.8
(73)
Point Barrow 69. 5 56. 0
(43)
Barrow 69.8 56.8
(181)
Point Hope 70.5 56.5
North and northeast
(11)
North Arctic 68.5 54.5
(24)
Baffin Land 70.0 55,0
(87)
Greenland 69.8 53.8
(35)
Old Igloos near Barrow. 70. 3 55. 8
(7)
Hudson Bay 70.3 56.8
(12)
Southampton Island 71 55
"» Lower angles mean higher, higher angles lower facial or alveolar protrusion.
286
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA
[ETH. ANX. 46
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PHYSICAL, ANTHROPOLOGY
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ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA
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294 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ANN. 46
SKULLS OF ESKIMO CHH^DREN
A special effort in our work has been made to secure well-pre-
served skulls of children. As elsewhere, so among the Eskimo, more
children die than adults, but conditions are not favorable for the
preservation of their skeletal remains. Most of the bones are done
away with or damaged by animals (foxes, dogs, mice, etc.), while
others decay, so that generally nothing remains of the youngest
subjects and but a few bones and a rare skull of the older children.
The total number of such skulls in our collection now reaches 25.
They are all of children of more than 2 but mostly less than 6 years
old, and are all normal specimens. The principal measurements of
their vault — a study of the face is a subject apart and needing more
material — are given in the following tables.
HRDLIOKA]
SKULLS OF ESKIMO CHILDREN
295
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296
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA
[ETH. ANN. 46
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hkdliCka]
SKULLS OF ESKIMO CHILDREN
297
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298
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA
[BTH. ANN. 46
The main interest centers in the comparison of the relative pro-
portions of these skulls with those of the adults from the same locali-
ties. These comparisons, given in the smaller table, are of consider-
able interest.
The cranial index is considerably higher in the children. On
analysis this is found to be due almost wholly to a greater relative
breadth of the child's skull. During later growth the Eskimo
cranium advances materially more in length than in breadth. A
further expansion in breadth is evidently hindered by some factor
outside of the bones themselves, for nothing appears in these that
could constitute such a hindrance. And the only evident outside fac-
tor capable of producing such an effect are the strong pads of the
temporal muscles.
The mean height index ( ^ j i p ) remains much the same
° \mean of L + B /
in the children and adults, indicating that the relative increase dur-
ing growth in skull length compensates for the lagging increase in
breadth, while the proportion of the height to the mean of the length
and breadth remains fairly stable.
The much greater growth in length than in breadth of the Eskimo
skull from childhood onward is shown even better in the second part
of the table by a dii'ect comparison of the mean dimensions. The
length of the adult skull is by over 9 per cent, the breadth by less
than 4 per cent, greater than that in childhood in the same groups.
The adult Eskimo skull has also grown very perceptibly more in
height than in breadth, though somewhat less so than in length. The
result is a notably higher height-breadth index in the adult. Com-
pared to that in childhood the adult Eskimo skull is therefore rela-
tively markedly longer, higher, and narrower.
These facts are probably of more significance than might seem at
first glance; for it is precisely by the same characters, carried still
further, that some of the Eskimo differ from others. Let us com-
pare two of our largest and best groups, those of St. Lawrence Island
and Greenland :
Number
of skulls
(both
sexes)
SkuU
length
Breadth
Height
St. Lawrence IslEnd _
(293)
(101)
1&05
18.51
13.90
13.30
13.45
Greenland -
13.54
The Greenland skull is longer, narrower, and somewhat higher.
The differences are less than those between a child and an adult
hkdlicka] the lower jaw 299
western Eskimo, but of the same nature. This apparently speaks
strongly for the development of the Greenland type of Eskimo
cranium from the western. On the other hand, the type of skull
shown by the Eskimo child approaches much more closely than that
of the Eskimo adult to the type of the skull of (Jie Mongol.
The above are mere observations, not theories, and they carry
a strong indication that mostly we are still floundering only on the
borders of true anthropology, embracing all phases of life and devel-
opment, which, if mastered, would give us with beautiful definition
many now vainly sought or barely glimpsed solutions.
A highly interesting feature is the relatively great development
in the Eskimo, between childhood and the adult stage, of the anterior
half of the skull or basion-nasion dimension. This augments, it is
seen, by even 3.4 per cent more than the length. This growth must
involve some additional factor to those inherent in the bones them-
selves and in the attached mu.sculature, and this can only be, it seems,
the development of the anterior half of the brain. Evidently this
portion of the brain between childhood and adult life grows in the
Eskimo more rapidly than that behind the vertical plane correspond-
ing to the basion. It is a very suggestive condition calling for fur-
ther study, and thus far almost entirely wanting in comparative data
on other human as well as subhuman groups.
THE LOWER JAW
The lower jaw of the Eskimo deserves a thorough separate study.
For this purpose, however, more jaws in good condition are needed
from various localities, and particularly more jaws accompanying
their skulls. As it is, a large majority of the crania are without the
lower jaw, or the alveolar processes of the latter have become so
affected in life through age and loss of teeth that their value is dimin-
ished or lost. Still another serious difficulty is that the measuring of
the lower jaw is difficult and has not as yet been regulated by general
agreement, so that there is much individualism of procedures with
limited i^ossibilities of comparison.
One of the principal measurements taken on the available Eskimo
mandibles was the symphyseal height. This is taken by the sliding
calipers and is the height from the lower alveolar point (highest
point of the normal alveolar septum between the middle lower in-
cisors) to the lowest point on the inferior border of the chin in the
median line.^* The results are given in the following tables.
" Shonid there be a decided notch in the middle, as happens in rare specimens, it Is
rational to take the measurement to the side of the notch.
300
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SUBVEY IN ALASKA
Eskimo Lower Jaw : Height at Symphysis
[ETH. ANN. 46
Male
South-
western
and mid-
western
North-
western
Northern
and
eastern
Female
South-
western
and mid-
western
North-
western
Northern
and
eastern
Groups (main)
Specimens
Average
General mean in west-
ern Eskimo
Percental relation of
female to male
(M = 100)
(9)
(116)
3.75
(5)
(143)
3. 76
(5)
(40)
3.67
(9)
(121)
3.38
(5)
(134)
3.34
(5)
(25)
3.39
3.76
3.36
89.4
Males,
19 groups
(399 jaws)
Females,
19 groups
(280 jaws)
General mean for all Eskimo (approximate)
Percental relation of female to the male
General mean of total facial height
Percental relation of height of jaw to total facial height - .
General mean of upper facial height
Percental relation of height of jaw to upper facial height.
3.73
3.37
90.4
11.60
29
7.20
47
Just what these figures mean will best be shown by a table of com-
parisons.^' All these are my own measurements.
Lower Jaw of Various Races: Height at Symphysis
Eskimo (all)
North American Indians:
Sioux ,.
Arkansas
Florida
Munsee
Louisiana
Kentucky
" From my Phys. Anthr. of the Lenape, etc., the Anthropology of
Male
Female
(399)
(280)
3.73
3.37
(36)
(26)
3.60
3. 22
(52)
(50)
3. 66
3.24
(29)
(21)
3.69
3.38
(9)
(6)
3. 70
3.40
(15)
(14)
3.72
3. 29
(44)
(30)
3.49
3. 18
Female ver-
sus male
(M = 100)
90.4
89.4
88.5
91.4
91.9
88.4
91.1
Florida, and the Catalogue of Crania.
hedliCka] • THE LOWER JAW 301
Lower Jaw of Various Races: Height at Symphysis — Continued
Female ver-
sus male
(M = 100)
U. S. whites (miscellaneous)
Negro, full-blood, African and American
Australians
Male
Female
(50)
(30)
3.29
2.87
(41)
(8)
3. 54
.3.14
(261)
(191)
3. 44
3.07
87. 2
^ SS. 7
89. 2
' Approximately.
The table shows the Eskimo jaw to be absolutely the highest at
the symphysis of all those available for comparison, with the female
nearly the highest.^'' Relatively to stature it exceeds decidedly all
the groups, the Indians that come nearest matching it in the abso-
lute measurement being all much taller than the Eskimo. And the
female Eskimo jaw is relatively high compared with that of the
male, being exceeded in this resjject only in three of the Indian
groups, in two of which, however, the showing is due wholly and
in one partly to a lesser height of the male jaw. The relative excess
of the female jaw in this respect seems particularly marked in the
northern and northeastern groups, though it must remain subject
to corroboration by further material.
The white, Negro, and Australian data have an interest of their
own.
Strength of the Jaw
The Eskimo jaw is generally stout. Barring rare exceptions there
is nothing slender about it. The body, moreover, is frequently
strengthened by more or less marked overgrowths of bone lingually
below the alveoli and above the mylohyoid ridge. These neoforma-
tions will be discussed later.
The strength of the mandible may be measured directly in various
locations on the body. Due to the peculiar build of the body, how-
ever, and especially to its variations, these measurements are by no
means simple and wholly satisfactory. It is hardly necessary in this
connection to review the various attempted methods, none of which
has become standardized. As a result of experience I prefer since
many years to measure the thickness of the body of the jaw at the
^° Rudolf Virchow, as far back as 1870, in studying some mandibles of the Greenland
Eskimo, found that the height of the body in the middle (3.5 centimeters) was greater
than that of the lower jaws of any other racial group available to him for comparison.
Archiv. fiir Anthrop., it, p. 77, Braunschweig, 1870.
302
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA
[ETH. ANN. 46
.second molars, and that in such a way that either the molars, if the
measurement is taken from above, or the lower border of the jaw if
it is taken from below, lies midway between the two branches of
the sliding calipers with which the measurement is taken. The two
methods (from above or below) give results that are nearly alike.
In some cases the one and in others the other is the easier, but
wherever the teeth are lost the measurement from below is perhaps
preferable. The records obtained on the lower jaws of the western
Eskimo and other racial groups are given in the next table.
Thickness op the Body of the Loweb Jaw at the Second Molaes in the
Western Eskimo and Othek Gboups
Male
Female
Female
versus male
Right side
Left side
Right side
Left side
(M = 100)
(240)
(243)
Western Eskimo millimeters - _
16. 2 16. 3
15. 1 15. 1
92.9
(29)
(28)
Florida Indians do
16.6
15.5
93.4
(21)
(16)
Louisiana Indians do
16.3
15. 3
93.9
(58)
(47)
Arkansas Indians do
15.2
14.7
96. 7
(40)
(22)
Kentucky Indians do
14 7
14.2
96.6
(50)
(20)
American whites (misc.). -do
14.5
12.8
88.3
The figures show that the Eskimo jaw is very stout. It is ex-
ceeded in thickness only by the jaws of Florida, which in general
are the thickest in America, and in males is about equaled, in females
very slightly exceeded by those of the prehistoric Indians of Loui-
siana, who belong to the same Gulf type with the Indians of Florida.
The old Arkansas Indians, though closely related to those of
Louisiana, show a very perceptibly more slender jaw, particularly
in the males; while in an old Kentucky tribe (Green Kiver, C. B.
Moore, collector) the jaws are still less strong. The lower jaws of
the American whites (dissecting-room material) are slightly less
stout than even those of the Indians of Kentucky in the males, and
much less so in the females. The interesting sex differences are
shown well in the last column of the above table.
hedliCka]
THE LOWER JAW
Breadth of the Rami
303
Still another character that reflects the strength of the lower jaw
is the breadth of the rami. The most practicable measurement of
this is the breadth minimum at the constriction of the ascending
branches. A great breadth of the rami is very striking, as is well
known, in the Heidelberg jaw, and the Eskimo have long been known
for a marked tendency in the same direction. The measurements of
the lower jaws of the western Eskimo show as follows :
LowEB Jaws of the Western Eskimo and Othee Raciai, Groups : Breadth
MiNIMtTM OF THE ASCENDING BRANCHES
Male
Female
Female
versus male
Right
Lett
Right
Left
(M = 100)
(243)
(240)
(237)
(228)
Western Eskimo... centimeters. _
3. 99
4.03
3. 68
3. 70
92
(20)
(20)
(13)
(13)
Florida Indians do
3.82
3.85
3.39
3.34
87. 7
(21)
(19)
(19)
(16)
Louisiana Indians do
3.72
3.72
3.29
3.27
88.2
(62)
(60)
(58)
(61)
Arkansas Indians do
3.47
3. 47
3.24
3.23
93.2
(42)
(40)
(30)
(29)
Kentucky Indians do
3. 44
3. 44
3. 18
3.21
92.9
(50)
(50)
(20)
(20)
United States whites (miscella-
neous) centimeters, _
3. 17
3. 14
2.89
2.82
90.5
The Eskimo jaws, and particularly that of the female (relatively
to other females), have the broadest rami. Otherwise the series
range themselves in the same order as under the measurement of the
stoutness of the body.
Other Dimensions
Four other measurements were taken on the jaws, namely the
length of the body (on each side) ; the height of the two rami; the
bigonial diameter; and the body-ramus angle. The results of the
first three may conveniently be grouped into one table.
304
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA
[ETH. ANN. 46
Additional Measurements on the Lower Jaw
MALE
Length of body,
each side >
Length of
body as a
whole ^
Height of ramus ^
Diameter
bigonial *
Eight
Left
Right
Left
Western Eskimo
Florida Indian _
(236) (236)
10. 28 10. 28
(100)
8.03
(24)
8.45
(19)
8.44
(62)
7.88
(42)
7.45
(50)
7.57
(132) (131)
6. 45 6. 38
(18)
6.72
(15)
7
(52)
6.52
(37)
6.48
(50)
6. 53
(201)
11. 42
(22)
10. 75
Louisiana Indian
(17)
10.67
(57)
10.49
(38)
10. 48
(50)
10. 11
FEMALE
Western Eskimo
Florida Indian
Louisiana I ndian
Arkansas Indian
Kentucky Indian
U. S. whites (miscellaneous) .
(230)
9.61
(228)
9.60
(100)
7.47
(19)
7.72
(16)
7.38
(57)
7.46
(30)
7. 12
(20)
7.02
(134)
5.61
(128)
5.57
(18)
6.02
(15)
5.77
(52)
5.85
(25)
5.64
(20)
5.87
(199)
10. 57
(17)
9.70
(15)
9.90
(56)
9.58
(30)
9. 45
(20)
9. 12
1 Sliding calipers : Separate measurement of each half of the body, from the lowe-st point
on the posterior border of each ramus not affected by the angle to a point of corresponding
height on the line of the symphysis. The anterior point may, in consequence of a lower
or higher location of the posterior point, range from the chin to above the middle of the
symphysis, but the results are much alike. The measurement leaves much to be desired,
but is the best possible if the two halves of the body are to be measured separately.
= The length of the whole jaw is measured on Broca's mandibular goniometer, by laying
the jaw firmly on the board, applying the movable plane to both rami, and recording the
distance of the most anterior point of the chin from the base of the oblique plane. This
measurement is easier than the previous, though on account of the variation in the angles
and the lower part of the posterior border of the rami it is also not fully satisfactory, and
it does not show the differences in the two halves of the body.
' Sliding calipers : One branch applied so that it touches the highest points on both the
condyle and the coronoid, while the other is applied to the lowest point of the ramus
anterior to the angle, if the bone here is prominent ; if receding, the branch of the compass
is applied to the midpoint on the lower border of the ramus.
' Sliding calipers : Maximum external diameter at the angles ; the maximum points may,
exceptionally, be either anterior to or a little above the angle proper.
nnDLiOKA]
the lower jaw
Females to Males (M = 100)
305
Length
each side
Length as
a whole
Height of
rami
Diameter
bigonial
Western Eskimo
93. i
93.0
91.4
87.4
94.6
95.6
92. 7
87.3
89.6
82.4
89. 7
87.0
89.9
92. 6
Florida Indian
90. 2
Louisiana Indian
92.8
Arkansas Indian .
91.3
Kentucky Indian- _._ _ .
90. 2
U. S. whites (miscellaneous)
90. 2
The Eskimo lower jaw, which, as seen before, is characterized by
a high and stout body and the broadest rami, shows further that
these rami are remarkably low, and that the bigonial spread is
extraordinarily broad. The length of the body, on the other hand,
is not very exceptional, being perceptibly exceeded in some of the
Indians.
The Angle
The angle between the body and the ramus of the lower jaw is
known to differ with the age and sex as well as individually. Not
seldom it differs also, and that sometimes quite apj^reciably, on the
two sides. Racial differences are as yet uncertain.
The angle, es^Jecially in some specimens, is not easy to measure,
and the position of the jaw may make a difference of several degrees.
Numerous trials have shown that the proper way is to measure the
angle on the two sides separately, and to so place the jaw in each
case that there is no interference with the measurement by either
the posterior or the anterior enlarged end of the condyle.
Leaving out jaws in which extensive loss of teeth has in all
probability resulted in changes in the angle, the western Eskimo
material gives the following data :
Western Eskimo: Angle of the Lower Jaw
Right side.
Male Female
(224)
119. 6°
(217)
124. 5°
Left side-
Male
(218)
119. 5°
Female
(207)
124.3°
In the male Munsee Indians the angle was 118° ; in those of
Arkansas and Louisiana, 118.5° ; in those of Peru (Martin, Lehrb.,
884), 119°. In the whites, males, the average angle approximates
122° ; in the Negro, 121° (Topinard, Martin).
306 ANTHKOPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ann. la
The angle in the female in the Eskimo is to that of the male as
104 to 100; in the Arkansas and Louisiana series it was 103. In
the whites the proportion seems to be a little higher.
There are evidently, if we exclude the whites in whom the short-
ness of the jaw conduces probably to a wider angle, no marked racial
differences, but the subject needs a more thorough study on large
series of sexually well-identified specimens, carefully selected as
to age.
The average angle on the right differs in the Eskimo but very
slightly from that on the left, though individually there are fre-
quent unequalities.
Eestjme
The Eskimo lower jaw differs substantially in many respects from
that in other races, particularly from that of the whites. It is char-
acterized by a high and stout body ; by broad but low rami ; and by
excessive breadth at the angles. The body-ramus angle is moderate.
To which may be added that the chin is generally of but moderate
jjrominence, and that the bone at the angles in males is occasionally
markedly everted.
Mandibular Htpeeostoses
These hypertrophies or hyperostoses are rarely met with also in the
jaws of the Indian and other people. They are symmetric and
characteristic, though often more or less irregular. They generally
extend from the vicinity of the lateral incisors or the canines back-
ward, forming when more developed a marked bulge on each side
opposite the bicuspids, which gives the inner contour of the jaw
when looked at from above a peculiar elephantine appearance.
They may occur in the form of smooth, oblong, somewhat fusiform
swellings, or as a continuous more or less uneven ridge, or may be rep-
resented by from one to four or five more or less rounded or flat-
tened hard " buttons " or tumor-like elevations. In development
they range from slight to very marked.
These hyperostoses have been reported by various observers (Dan-
ielli, S0ren Hansen, Rudolf Virchow, Welcker, Duckworth & Pain,
Oetteking, Hrdlicka, Hawkes). They received due attention by
Fiirst and Hansen in their "Crania Groenlandica " (p. 178). They
have been given the convenient, though both etiologically and mor-
^jhologically inaccurate, name of " mandibular torus " ; I think man-
dibular hyperostoses or simply welts would be better. Fiirst and
Hansen found them, taking all grades of development, in 182, or 85
per cent, of 215 lower jaws of Greenland Eskimo; in 28 jaws, or 13
per cent, they were pronounced, the remainder being slight to me-
dium. A special examination of 62 lower jaws of children and 710
HKDLIl'KA]
THE LOWER JAW
307
lower jaws of adult western Eskimo (with a small number from
Greenland) gives the following record:
Lingual Mandibular Hyperostoses in the Western Eskimo
children
[62 mandibles, completion of milk dentition to eruption of second permanent molar]
None or in^
distinguish-
able
Slight to
moderate
Specimens.
Per cent
47
75. S
1 10
16. 1
8. 1
ADULTS
[Both sexes. 710 mandibles]
Specimens -
Per cent
215
356
114
30.3
50. 1
16. 1
25
3. 5
' None in the younger children. ' All in older children or adolescents.
ADULTS
[Sexes separately. M. 350; F. 360 mandibles]
None or indis-
tinguishable
Slight to moder-
ate
Medium
Pronounced
Males
Females
Males
Females
Males
Females
Males
Females
Specimens.- _ ..
71
ao. 3
144
40.0
193
55. 1
163
45. 3
67
19. 1
47
IS. 1
19
5.4
6
Per cent . - _
1. 7
The significance of these hyperostoses is not yet quite clear.
Danielli, who in 1884 reported them " in the Ostiaks, Lapps, a
Kirghiz, a Peruvian Indian, and four white skulls, offered no ex-
planation. For S0ren Hansen,'* who first suggested the resemblance
of these formations to the torus palatinus, "the significance of this
feature, wliicli also occurs in other Arctic races not directly related
to the Eskimos, is not clear." R. Virchow,'^ who reports " wulstigen
und knolligen Hyperostosen " on both the upper and lower jaws of
a Vancouver Island Indian, restricts himself to a brief mention of tlie
condition with a suggestion as to its causation (see later). Welcker -"
found them in the skulls of a German (Schiller?), Lett, and a
Chinese, but has nothing to say as to tlieir meaning. Duckwortii
" Danielli, J., Arch. p. I'antrop. e I'etni.l., 1S8 1, xiv.
"Meddel. om. Gr0nl., 18S7, No. 17.
"' Beitr. Kranicl. d. Insul. w. Kiiste Am.-r.. 18SD, 398.
'"Arch. Anthrop.. 1902. .\xvii, 70.
308 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. anx. 46
and Pain -^ report the " thickening " in 10 out of 32 Eskimo jaws,
but do not discuss the causation ; and the same applies to Oetteking,--
who reported on a series of Eskimo from Labrador. In 1909
Gorjanovic-Kramberger -^ somewhat indirectly notes the condition,
without a true api^reciation of its meaning.
In 1910 I had the opportunity to report on the mandibular hyper-
ostoses in a rare collection of crania and lower jaws of the central
and Smith Sound Eskimo." Of 25 lower jaws of adults and 5 of
children, 18, or 72 per cent, of the former and 2 of the latter showed
distinct to marked lingual hyperostoses, while in the remaining cases
the feature was either doubtful (absorption of the alveolar process)
or absent. Two of the five children showed the peculiarity in a
well-marked degree. A critical consideration of the condition leads
me to the conclusion that it is not jDathological, and my remarks
were worded {p. 211) as follows: "A marked and general feature
is a pronounced bony reinforcement of the alveolar arch extending
above the mylohyoid line from the canines or first bicusjDids to or
near the last molars. This physiological hy23erostosis presents more
or less irregular surface and is undoubtedly of functional origin, the
result of extraordinary pressure along the line of teeth most con-
cerned in chewing ; yet its occurrence in infant skulls indicates that
at least to some extent the feature is already hereditary in these
Eskimo."
In 1912, Kajava -' reported lingual hyperostotic thickenings on the
lower jaws of 68 adult Lapps, and found the condition in frequent
association with pronounced wear of the teeth. In 1915, finally,
Fiirst and C. C. Hansen, in their great volume on " Crania Groen-
landica," approach this question much more thoroughly. They, as
also Kajava, did not know the writer's report of 1910. They found
the " torus " (p. 181) , '' also in the mandibles of some various Siberian
races in a not insignificant percentage * * * and also not in-
frequently among European races, especially in the Laplanders
(30 to 35 per cent)." They also report the presence of the condi-
tion " in a Chinaman," and saw indications of a good development
of it in 17 per cent of 164 middle ages to prehistoric, and in 12 per
cent of later Scandinavian lower jaws. Their interesting comments
on its possible causation, though at one point seemingly not har-
monizing, are as follows (p. 180) : " The possibility is not precluded
that we have here a formation which, even though it has at first
arisen and been acquired through mechanical causes, has in the end
^ J. Anthr. Inst.. 1900, xsx, 134.
" Abh. und Ber. Zool. und Anthr. Mus., Dresdin, 190S, xii.
-'' Sitzber. preuss. Ak. Wis.^i., Li-Liii.
" .\nthrop. Pap's. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., v, pt. ii.
~ Verb. Ges. Finn. Zahnarzte, 1912, ix.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 61
Western Eskimo and Aleut (Middle) Lower Jaws, Showing Lingual
Hyperostoses. iU.S.N.M.)
HRDLICKA] THE LOWER JAW 309
become a racial character, albeit a variable one." And page 181 :
" There seems to be no doubt whatever that it is a formation connected
with Arctic races or Arctic conditions of life ; and, accordingly, it can
not safely be assumed to be a racial character, however difficult it is
to regard it as a formation only acquired individually."
With both the previously published and the present data, I believe
the subject of these bony formations may now be approached with
some hope of definite conclusions.
These hyperostoses give no indication of being pathological. They
are formed largely, if not entiiely, by compact bone tissues of evi-
dently normal construction. They never show a trace of attending
inflammation or of ulceration or of breaking down. They resemble
occasionally the osteomae of the vault of the skull, and more dis-
tantly the osteomae of the auditory meatus, but in those cases
where the bony swelling is uniform and in many others they show to
be of quite a different category. (PI. 61.)
As a rule these bony protuberances in the Eskimo are not con-
nected with evidence of pyorrhoea, root abscesses, or any other
pathological condition of the teeth, for those conditions are prac-
tically absent in the older Eskimo skulls; therefore they can not be
ascribed to any irritation due to such conditions, and the Eskimo
have no habits that could possibly be imagined asi favoring, through
mechanical irritation, the development of these bony swellings.
AVear of the teeth, which has been thought to stand possibly in a
causative relation to these developments, is common in many races
and even in animals (primates, etc.), without being accompanied
by any such formations. .
The development of such overgrowths is not wholly limited, as
already indicated from the cases reported by Danielli (1884) and
Virchow (1889), to the lower jaw, but somewhat similar growths
may also be observed, though much more rarely, both lingually and
on the outer border of the alveolar process of the upper jaw in the
molar region. When present in the latter position they interfere
with the measurement of the external breadth of the dental arch.
But, if neither pathological themselves nor due to any pathological
or mechanical irritation, then these hyperostoses can only be, it would
seem, of a physiological, ontogenic nature ; and if so, then they must
be brought about through a definite need and for a definite purpose
or function.
These views are supported by their marked symmetry, which is
very apparent even where they are irregular; by the fact that in
general they are not found in the weakest jaws (weak individuals),
or again in the largest and stoutest mandibles (jaws that are strong
enough as it is) ; and by the history of their development.
310 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SUKVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ANN. 46
Our rather extensive present data on children show that these
formations are absent in infancy. They begin to develop in older
childhood, in adolescence, or even during the earlier adult life ; they
stop developing at different stages in different individuals, and they
never lead to any deformity of the body of the mandible.
These overgrowths are further seen to be more common and to more
frequently reach a pronounced development in the males than in the
females.
What is the effect of these hyperostoses? They strengthen the
dental arch. With them the arch is stronger ; without them it would
be weaker. The view is therefore justified that they augment the
effectiveness of the dental arch; which is just what is needed or
would be useful in such people as the Eskimo where the demands on
the jaws exceed in general those in any other people.
All these appear to be facts of incontrovertible nature; but if so
then we are led to practically the same conclusion that I have reached
in the study of the central and Smith Sound Eskimo, which is that
the lingual mandibular hyperostoses are physiological formations,
developed in answer to the needs of the alveolar portions of the
lower jaw. They could be termed synergetic hyperostoses.
The process of the development of these strengthening deposits of
bone is probably still largely individual; yet the tendency toward
such developments appears to be already hereditary in the Eskimo,
as indicated by their beginning here and there in childhood. But
their absence in nearly one-third of the Eskimo mandibles, their
marked differences of occurrence and development in the two sexes,
and their occasional presence in the jaws of various other peoples,
including even the whites, speak against the notion of these hyper-
ostoses being as yet true racial features.
Taking everything into consideration, the writer is more than ever
convinced that the lingual hyperostoses of the normal lower (as well
as the upper) jaw, in the Eskimo as elsewhere, are physiological,
ontogenic developments, whose object and function is the strength-
ening of the lower alveolar process in its lateral portions. Only
when excessively developed, which is very rare, they may, mechani-
cally, perhaps cause discomfoi't and thereby approach a pathological
condition.
Main References
Danielli,-^ 1884: "Saw the condition in lower jaws of 1 Swede,
1 Italian, 1 Terra di Lavoro jaw, 1 Slovene, 1 Hungarian, 1 Kirghis,
1 ancient Peruvian."
Found hyperostoses in 9 out of 14 Ostiak lower jaws.
'" Danielli, Jacopo, Iperostosi in maudibole umano specialmente di Ostlacclii, ed anche
in mascellari superiore. Archivio per I'antropologia e I'etuologia, 1884, xiv, 333-346.
HBDLICKA]
THE LOWKR JAW 311
Material : Young 2, adult 6, old 6.
Hyperostoses in young 1, adult 3, old 5.
Mantegazza. at his request, examined some Ostiak and Eskimo
skulls in Berlin and found the hyperostoses in 2 Ostiak lower jaws
(slitrht) and in 1 Eskimo skull from Greenland (marked).
Found also smaller hyperostoses in the upper jaw ventrully to the
molars (" situate quasi sempre dalla parte interna in cori-ispondenza
dei molari ") :
Skulls: 2 Italians, 1 Hungarian, Y Norwegians, 2 Lapps, 5 Ostiaks.
Plate shows 8 lower jaws, 1 with slight, 7 with marked hyperostoses
(1 symphyseal swellings, 3 tumorlike).
Refrains from interpretation (could not I'each conclusion).
Virchow,-" 1889, page 392 : In upper jaws of three Santa Barbara
skulls: "An den Alveolarriindern der weiblichen Schiidel Nr. 3-6
von S. Barbara besteht eine hcichst eigenthiimliche und seltene, knol-
lige Hyperostosis s. Osteosclerosis alveolaris, wie ich sie in gleicher
Starke friiher nur bei Eskimos gesehen hatte. Ein leichter Ansatz
dazu zeigt sich auch bei dem mannlichen Schadel Nr. 4 von S. Cruz.
Es diirfte dieser Zustand, der mit tiefer Abnutzung der Ziihne
zusammenfalt, durch besonders reizende Nahrung bedingt sein."
Vancouver Island skulls : " dagegen sehen wir dieselbe alveolare
Hyperostose, die wir bei den Leuten von S. Barbara und weiterhin
bei Eskimos kennen gelernt haben."
Virchow,^'* 1892 : " Der Alveolarrand gleichfalls mit hyperosto-
tischen Wiilsten besetzt, jedoch mehr an der inneren Seite, besonders
stark in der Gegend per Priimolares und Canini, weniger stark in der
Gegend der Incisici."
Welcker.-^ 1902 : " Exostosen der Alveolarriinder. Von erheblicher
Beweiskraft konnen Eigenthiimlichkeiten und Abnormitaten des
Knochengewebes under der Knochenoberfliiche werden, wenn diesel-
ben, bei an sich grosser Seltenheit ihres Vorkommens, an einem Ober-
schiidel und Unterkiefer zugleich vorkommen.
" So fand ich am Unterkiefer der Gypsabgiisse des sogenannten
Schillerschiidels sehr merkwiirdige, bis dahin nirgends erwahnte,
erbsenformige Exostosen an den Alveolen der Eck- und Schneide-
ziihne. Ganz iihnliche, wenn auch etwas fliichere Exostosen zeigen
die Alveolen eben derselben Ziihne des Oberschiidels, und es beweist
dieses seltene Vorkommen bei dem Zutreffen aller iibrigen Zeichen
das Zusammengehoren beider Stlicke mit holier Sicherheit.
^Virchow, R., in Beitriige zur Craniologie der Insulaner von der Westkiiste Nord-
amerikas. Zeitsclir. f. Ethnol.. Verhandl., 18S9, xxi, 393, 401.
■' Virchow. R.. Crania Etlinica Americana. Berlin, 1892, Tatel xxiii. A " long-head "
male adult of Koskimo, Vancouver Island.
^ Wclckor. IT., Die Zugehiirigkeit eines Unterkiefers zu einem bestimmten Schiidel,
nebst Untersuchungen iiber sehr auffallige, durch Auftrockuung und Wiederanfeuchtung
bedingto Groben und Formveranderungen des Knochens. Arch. f. Anthropol., 1902,
XXVII, 70.
312 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ann. 48
" In einer etwas anderen Form, in der dieselben einen geschlos-
senen, exostotischen Saum bilden, fand ich Alveolarexostosen bei
einem Lettenschiidel (G. Gandras, 47 J., Halle Nr. 52). Hier sind
die Alveolarriinder der Schneide-und Eckziihne mit flachen, am
Oberkiefer streifenformigen (senkrecht gestellten), am Unterkiefer
mehr rundlichen Exostosen besetzt, so dass der sonst papierdiinne
Zahnflachenrand beider Kiefer in einen, die Zahnhalse begrenzenden
wulst-formigen Saum umgewandelt ist. Der gleiche Charalrter
dieser nicht haufigen Abnormitiit an beiden Kiefern giebt die vollste
Ueberzeungung der Zusammengehorigkeit.
" In schwiicherem Grade zeigt diesen Zustand ein Chinesenscliadel
der Halle'schen Sammlung (Lie Assie)."
Fiirst,^" 1908 : " Wir haben hier auf diese interessante anatomische
Bildung aufmerksam machen wollen, die, wenn nicht konstant, doch
in sehr hohem Prozentsatze und in bestimmter charakteristischer
Form bei den Eskimos auftritt und in verschiedenen Variationen auf
dem Unterkiefer anderer Rassen, speziell nordischer oder arktischer,
vorkommt. — AVir wollen spiiter eine ausfiihrlichere Besehreibung
iiber den Torus mandibularis mitteilen."
Gorjanovic-Kramberger,^^ 1909: "Durch die Ausbiegung der seit-
liehen Kieferflachen wurde ferner die Druckrichtung der M und P
eine gegen die innere Kieferwandung gerichtete. Als direkte Folge
dieses Druckes hat man die starke Ausladung der entsprechenden
lingualen Kieferseiten im Bereiche der P und M anzusehen, die da
eine auffallende Einengung des inneren Unterkieferraumes bewerk-
stelligte."
Hrdlicka (A.), 1910. See text.
Hansen,^- 1914 : " The lower jaws attached to the skulls are power-
fully formed, high, and, above all, very thick, their inner surface
being markedly protruding, rounded, and without any special promi-
nence of linea mylohyoidea. This peculiarity, which is common
enough among the Eslvimo and certain Siberian tribes, but is other-
wise exceedingly rare, must be regarded as a hyperostosis of the
same nature as the so-called torus palatinus. It is a partly pathologi-
cal formation due to a peculiar mode of life rather than a true
morphological mark of race."
Fiirst, C. M., and Hansen, C. C, 1915. See text.
=° Fiirst, Carl M.. Demonstration des Torus mandibularis bei don Aslsimos und anderen
Rassen. Verhandlungen der Anatomischcn Gcsellschaft in Berlin, 1908, Ergiinzbft z.
Anatom. Anz., 1908, xxxii, 295-296.
'^ GorjanoTic-Kramberger. K., Der Unterkiefer der Eskimos (Gronlander) als TrSger
primitiver Merkmale. Sitzungsberichte der kiJniglieli preussischen Akademie der Wissen-
sehaften, 1909, Li.
^ Hansen, Spren, Contributions to the anthropology of the East Greenlanders. Med-
delelser cm Gr0nland, Copenhagen, 1914, xxxix, 169.
HKDi.irKA] SKELETAL PARTS 313
Caineron,^^ 1923 : '' In some instances the bony thickening was
excessive. For example, in mandible XIV H-8 the inward bulging
of the bone was so mai-ked that the transverse distance between the
inner surfaces of the body opposite the first molars was reduced to
21.5 millimeters. This jaw had therefore an extraordinary appear-
ance when viewed fi-om below. (See fig. 5.) The writer would
regard these bulgings as bone buttresses built up by nature to resist
the excessive strain thrown upon tiie alveoli of the molar teeth. He
exhibited the mandibles to Prof. H. E. Friesell, dean of the dental
faculty, University of Pittsburgh, and this authority concurred in
the opinion expressed above." A disagreement with this view is
expressed by S. G. Ritchie, pages 64c-65c, same publication.
SKELETAL PARTS OTHER THAN THE SKULL
The skeletal parts of the western Eskimo, outside of the skull, are
but little known. The only records are those on two skeletons (one
male, one female) from Point Barrow by Hawkes,^^ and those on a
few bones from Port Clarence by Cameron.^" The data on the skele-
tal parts of the northern and eastern Eskimo are only slightlj'
richer, being for the most part fragmentary and scattered.^' Nor
has the time arrived yet for a comprehensive study of such material,
for notwithstanding the relative abundance in crania and the more
resistant individual skeletal parts, the securing of anywhere near
complete skeletons is very difficult. Nevertheless there is now a good
number of the long bones of the western Eskimo in the possession
of the National Museum and the main data on these, all secured
personally by the writer, will be given. They must for the present
remain essentially as so many figures without adequate discussion and
comparisons. Nevertheless a few facts appear so plainly that they
may well be pointed out before concluding this section.
^ Cameron. Jiihn, The Copper Eskimos. Report of the Canadian Arctic Expedition,
1913-1918. Ottawa, 19L'3, xii, c. 5o.
^ Amer. .\nthrop., 1916, LViii^ 240-243.
^ Rep. Canad. Arct. Exp., 1913-1918, Pt. C, 1923, 5G-5T.
'"Mainly by Turner (London, 1886): Duckworth (Cambridge, 1904); Hrdlifka (New
York, 1010) ; Cameron (Ottawa, 1913—1918) ; also a series of incidental references and
comparisons.
88253°— 30 21
314
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA
Westebn Eskimo: The Long Bones
[ETH. ANN. 40
Males
Females
Seward
Seward
Bones of both sides taken to-
gether
South-
western
and
Seward
Penin-
sula '
Point
Penin-
sula and
north-
South-
we.stern
and
Seward
Penin-
sula
Point
Penin-
sula and
north-
midwes-
Hope
western
midwes-
llope
western
tern
Eskimo
tern
Eskimo
groups 1
m gen-
eral 3
groups
in gen-
eral
Humeri:
(143)
(261)
(67)
(100)
(136)
(26)
(55)
(83)
Length maximum
30.69
31.42
31.07
31.17
28.40
28.75
28.83
28.83
At middle —
Diameter maximum.
2.40
2.46
2.46
2.46
2.10
2.14
2.16
2.15
Diameter minimum,.
1.80
1.81
1.86
1.85
1.54
1.59
1.63
1.62
Index at middle
76.1
73. S
75.8
76.1
7S.S
7H
76. i
76.1
Radii:
(9S)
(20)
(15)
(37)
(109)
(16)
(8)
(24)
Length maximum
22.90
23.63
23.44
23.50
20.50
21.26
s (21. 58)
21.25
Radio-humeral index (ap-
716
75.2
76. i
76.4
7S.2
74
(74. 8)
74
Femora:
(195)
42.50
(44)
43.20
(10)
(60)
43.46
(132)
(26)
(31)
(44.06)
39.36
40.12
40 44
Humero - femoral index
7tS
7S.7
< (70. S)
71.7
72. «
71.7
71.S
At middle-
Diameter antero- pos-
terior
3.08
2 70
3.17
2 72
(3.33)
(2 68)
3.21
2 72
2 69
2 46
2.85
2.65
2.88
Diameter lateral
Index at middle
At upper flattening—
2.56
(.80. i)
SJ,.8
91.5
89.6
88.9
Diameter maximum..
Diameter minimum..
Index at upper flat-
3 35
3 34
(3. 27)
(2 58)
3 32
3.02
3.04
3.06
2.59
2.26
2.37
2.40
75
77
(79)
78./
74.6
78
78.4
Tibiae:
(141)
(3.5)
(41)
(79)
(147)
(18)
(17)
(36)
Length (in position)
33.86
34.52
36.40
35.52
31.32
31.90
32.90
32.50
Tibio-femoral index (ap-
79 7
79.9
'(.ss.e)
8/. 7
79.6
79.6
80.4
At middle-
Diameter antero-pos-
3.12
2.12
3.13
2.12
3.26
2.20
3.19
2.16
2.71
1.89
2.71
1.93
2.80
1.92
2.75
Diameter lateral
1.92
Index at middle
67.9
67.7
67.4
67.8
69.9
71. S
68.8
70
1 Principally Hooper Bay, Nunivak Island, Pastolik, and St. Lawrence Island.
' Mainly Shishmaref, Wales and Golovnin Bay.
' Including Point Hope.
* Number of femora insufficient.
* Number of radii insufficient.
HRDLICKA] SKELETAL PARTS 315
Tlie first fact shown by the preceding figures is the slightly greater
length of all the long bones in the michvestern and northwestern
groups as compared with those of the Bering Sea (midwestern and
southwestern). This means naturally that the people of the Seward
Peninsula and northward average somewhat taller in stature.
The second evident fact is that the people of the Seward Peninsula
and the more northern groups (so far as represented in these collec-
tions) show a slightly greater stature of all the bones than the
groups farther south, showing that they were both a somewhat taller
and somewhat sturdier people.
The next fact of imj^ortance is the remarkable agreement in .some
respects in the relative proportions of the main skeletal parts be-
tween the jieople of the more southern and the more northern groups.
The males are more regular in this respect than the females. The
relative proportions of the humerus and again the tibia at their
middle are identical in the males of the soutliwestern and midwestern
groups and those farther northward ; and the radio-humeral, humero-
femoral, and tibio-femoral indices are all very closely related. Wliy
there should be less agreement in these respects among the females
it is difficult to say ; in all probability the series of specimens are not
sufficiently large.
The next table presents data and some racial comparisons. Here
the western Eskimo are taken as a unit. They are seen to consider-
ably resemble the Yukon Indians, but somewhat less so other Indians
in the radio-humeral and tibio-femoral indices, and they resemble all
the Indians in the relative proportions of the femur at its middle. In
other respects there are somewhat more marked differences, especially
between the western Eskimo and the Indians in general. Some irregu-
larities in the Yukon series may be due to insufficiency of numbers.
When compared with the bones of the whites and the negroes the
Eskimo and Indians separate themselves in many respects as a
distinct groujD, while the white and the negro bones are particularly
distinct through the greater relative thickness of the humerus and
tibia at their middle, and of the femur at its upper flattening; in
other words the Eskimo as well as the Indians are more platybrachic,
platymeric and platycnemic than the whites or the negroes.
The basic relation of the Eskimo to tlie Indian bones is quite evi-
dent ; though the Eskimo, when compared to Indians outside of
Alaska, show a relatively shorter radius and tibia, indicating the
already discussed relative shortness of the forearm and leg.
Long Bones in Eskimo and Stature
One of the most desirable of possibilities in the anthropometry of
any people, but particularly in groups now extinct, is a correct esti-
316
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SUEVEY IN ALASKA
[ETH. ANN. 46
Westbkn Eskimo. Long Bones : Compaeative Data
MALES
Western Eskimo
Yukon Indians
Other Indians
United States whites (mis-
cellaneous)
United States negroes
Hu-
Femur
merus:
Index
of shaft
at the
middle
(all
groups)
Radio-
humeral
index
Hu-
raero-
femoral
index
Tibia:
Index of
shaft at
middle
Index of
shaft at
middle
Index
of shaft
at upper
flat-
tening
' (243)
(135)
(255)
(255)
(243)
(220)
75. 1
76
86.2
76.5
72
67.9
(10)
(10)
(14)
(14)
(10)
(14)
70
75.7
87. 1
70. 7
74.5
66
(448)
(370)
(902)
(902)
(378)
(1259)
73.3
77. 7
87.3
74
72. 5
66. 1
(1930)
(1052)
(207)
(836)
(800)
(1400)
83
73.6
97
83
72.5
71. 1
(112)
(74)
2 (14)
(48)
(50)
(63)
84. 1
77.3
(9L 2)
86.8
7L6
73.9
Tibio-
femoral
index
(220)
80.7
(14)
8L5
(324)
84. 4
(1216)
82. 1
(68)
84. 9
FEMALES
Western Eskimo
other Indians
United States whites (mis-
cellaneous)
United States negroes
(213)
(133)
(153)
(153)
(153)
(183)
74. 1
73. 1
90. 2
76.5
7L8
70
(348)
(200)
(327)
(248)
(200)
(910)
70. 1
76.6
91.8
70
72.5
70
(770)
(424)
(100)
(192)
(290)
(600)
79.3
72.7
97
77.7
7L6
7L 9
(52)
(34)
2 (17)
(48)
(52)
(44)
79.2
77. 2
(100)
81. 1
70.2
75.9
(183)
80
(384)
84.3
(520)
8L5
(48)
83.7
I Bones of both sides.
' Numbers insufficient.
mation of tlieir stature. For this purpose the most useful aid has been
found in the long bones, and various essays have been made by Manou-
vrier, Rollet, Topinard, Pearson, and others '^ at preparing tables
or arriving at methods that would enable the student to promptly
and satisfactorily obtain the stature as it was in life from the length
of the long bones. But all these .essays were based on observations
on white people, and it has always been recognized that they could
not with equal confidence be applied to other racial groups. They
would in all lorobability be especially inapplicable to the Eskimo
with his relatively short forearms and legs; yet the possibility of
estimating the stature in many localities of the Eskimo territory,
where no living remain, would be of real value. Fortunately for this
purpose there are now some data on hand which make this possible.
" See section on Estimation of Stature from Parts of the Skeleton, In author's An-
thropometry, Wistar Inst., Philadi'lphia, 1920.
HItDLICKA]
SKELETAL PARTS
317
In 1910, ill my Contributions to the Anthropology of the Central
and Smith Sound Eskimo, I was able to report both the stature and
the length of the long bones in two normally developed adult males
and one adult female from Smith Sound. To this it is now possible to
add larger though less direct data from the group of St. Lawrence
Island. We have the stature of many of the living from this place
and also the mcasui-ements of numerous long bones from the dead
of the same group. The relations of the two are given below, together
with corresponding data from Smith Sound. There is in general
such a striking agreement in the relative proportions that the latter
may, it would seem, be used henceforth for stature estimates also in
other parts of the Eskimo region.
Length of Peincip.al Long Bo.nes, and Stature in the Living, on the
St. Lawhence Island
Male
Female
(63)
Mean stature: 103.3
(48)
Mean stature; 151.3
Mean
dimensions
Percental
relation
to stature
(S = 100)
Mean
dimensions
Percental
relation
to stature
(S = IOO)
Humerus- ._ _ .'
(58)
30.41
(23)
23.03
(100)
32. 54
(58)
34. 16
IS. 6
14.1
27. S
20. 9
(49)
27.77
(35)
20. 77
(38)
38. 12
(50)
31. 13
18 S
Radius _
13 7
Femur
26 1
Tibia _ __ _ _
20 5
Long Bones vs. Stature in Eskimo of Smith Sound '
Female
Stature
Humerus:
Mean length (of the two)
Percental relation to stature
Radius:
Mean length
Percental relation to stature
Femur:
Mean length
Percental relation to stature
Tibia:
Mean length
Percental relation to stature
146.7
24 56
IS. 1
19.85
13.5
38. 55
26. 3
30.9
21. 1
' Hrdiitka, A., Contribution to the anthropology of central and Smith Sound Eskimo. Anthrop.
Pap. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., v, pt. 2, 280. New York, 1910.
318 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SUR\^Y IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 46
A STKANGE GEOUP OF ESKIMO NEAK POINT BARROW
In 1917-1919, in the course of the John "Wanamaker Expedition for
the University Museum, Philadelphia, "W. B. Van Valin, with the
help of Charles Brower, the well-known local trader and collector,
excavated near Barrow a group of six tumuli, which proved in the
opinion of Van Valin to be so many old igloos, containing plentiful
cultural as well as skeletal material. The collections eventually
reached the museum, but due to lack of facilities they were in the
main never unpacked.
I heard of this material first from Mr. Brower, with whom I sailed
in 1926 from Barrow southward, and later with Dr. J. Alden Mason
I saw the collection still in the original boxes, at the University
Museum. In April of this year the skeletal remains wei-e transferred
to the Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, and after their transfer I
obtained the permission of Dr. Milton J. Greenraan, director of the
Wistar Institute, to examine the material, which was of importance
to him in connection with his own collections from Barrow and south-
ward. A due acknowledgment for the privilege is hereby rendered
to both Doctor Greeninan and Doctor Ma.son.
The study proved one of unexpected and uncommon interest. The
material was found to consist of two separate lots. The first of these
consisted of a considerable number of brown colored, more or less
complete skeletons with skulls, proceeding from the " igloos" ; while
the second lot comprised a scries of whitened isolated skulls, witliout
other skeletal parts and mostly even without the component lower
jaws, gathered on the tundra near Barrow. At first sight, also,
the skulls of the two groups were seen to present important
differences.
The " igloo " crania, while plainly pure Eskimo, proved to be of a
decidedly exceptional nature for this location. The skulls, in brief,
were not of the general western Eskimo type, but reminded at once
strongly of the skulls from Greenland and Labrador. And they were
exceptionally uniform, showing that they belonged to a definite and
distinct Eskimo group.
After writing of this to Doctor Mason, he kindly sent me a copy of
the notes and ob.'^ervations on the discovery of the material by W. B.
Van Valin, who was in charge of the excavation. The detailed notes
will soon be published by Doctor Mason. The main information they
convey is as follows :
The excavations by Van Valin date from 1918-19. They were made
in six large " heaps," approximately 8 miles southwest of Barrow and
about 1,000 yards back from the beach on the tundra. Two of the
heaps were on the northern and four on the southern side of a ravine
HRDLiCKA] A STRANGE GROUP OF ESKIMO 319
or draw formed by a drain flowing from inland to the sea. The
Eskimo at Barrow knew nothing about these remains or tlieir people.
Each of the heaps inclosed what in the excavator's opinion was an
"igloo" made of driftwood and earth; and all contained evidently
undisturbed human skeletons. The total number of bodies of all
ages was counted as 83, and they ranged from infants to old people.
There were many bird and other skins (for covers and cloth-
ing), and numerous utensils. The hair on the bodies was in general
" black as a raven." Most of the bodies lay on " beds " of moss or
" ground willows," or rough-hewn boards. Thei-e was no indication
of any violence or sudden death. The bodies at places were in three
levels, one above the other; but there was but moderate uniformity in
the orientation of the bodies. There were found with the burials no
traces of dogs (though there were some sled runners), and no
metal, glass, j^ipes, labrets, nets, soapstone lamps or dog harness; but
thei-e were bows and arrows, bolas, and ordinary jDottery. The cul-
tural objects, Doctor Mason wrote me, resemble in a smaller measure
those of the older Bering Sea, to a larger extent those of the old
northern or " Thule " culture. There were some jadeite axes, indi-
cating a direct or indirect contact with Kotzebue Sound and the
Kobuk River.
Some of the bearskin coverings were " as bright and silvery " as
the day the bear was killed (Van Valin) ; and the frozen bodies were
evidently in a state of preservation approaching that of natural
mummies.
Notwithstanding indications to the contrary. Van Valin reached
the opinion that these remains were not those of regular burials,
though offering no other definite hypothesis.
Desiring additional information about this highly interesting find,
I wrote to Mr. Brower, who assisted at the excavations, and received
the following answer :
These mounds are from 5 to S miles south of the Barrow village (Utkiavik).
The largest that were fipened were the farthest south, and seemed more like
raised lumps on the land than ruins. No doubt that is the reason no one had
bothered them.
The Eskimo have no traditions of these people. In fact they did not even
suspect the mounds contained human remains until Mr. Van Valin started to
investigate them.
While Van Valin thought they might be houses, I have always thought they
were burial mounds, as there seemed no family to have been together at the
time of death as often has happened. When whole families have died from some
epidemic, then the man and wife are together under their sleeping skins. In
these mounds each party was wrapped separate, either in polar bear or musk
ox skins ; none were wrapped in deer skins. If male, all his hunting imple-
ments were at his side, and if a female her working tools were with her, as
scrapers, dishes of wood, and stone knives. The men had their bows, arrows,
320 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SUEVEY IN ALASKA [eth. anx. 46
spears, and often a heavy club, for what purpose unless used iu fighting I
could not make out. At the head of each person was a small receptacle, made
of whalebone, and In it or alongside was a long wing boue that had been used
as a drinking tube. In some cases there seemed to be the remains of food in
the platters, but that was impossible to identify. Most of the bodies were laid
on the ground, a few had the remains of scrub willow under them, while only
in two or three cases had there been driftwood planks under the bodies ; these
were crudely hewn with their old stone adzes.
There seems to have been some sort of driftwood houses over these bodies
at some time, but they detayed and have fallen on the remains, which were in
some cases embedded in the ice. Often before the frame had broken down
earth must have accumulated and covered the bodies. In these cases the flesh
has the consistency of a fine meal. While with those in the ice in some cases
part of the flesh still remained. In both cases when exposed to the air they
rapidly disintegrated, leaving nothing except the bones. By measurements they
must have been a larger race than the present people.
When your letter reached here I at once started making inquiries as to what
mounds were still intact; and I find that as far as known only two of the
larger ones have not been ojiened. The Eskimo have been opening the mounds
ever since they were found, taking from them all the hunting implements
and other material and selling them aboard the ships for curios. It seems a
shame that all this should be lost to science, and if no one takes an interest in
these places in a year or two they will all be gone.
I have again made inquiries as to what the present Eskimo think of these
people, but they tell me they have no tradition regarding them and that they
do not know if tliey were their ancestors or not. In fact, they are ignorant
of where they came from or when they died.
To date I do not know of any whaling implement being found with these
old people, neither is any of the framework of these mounds made from the
bones of whales. In some of the implements ivory has been used. The mounds
farthest from the shore were about 400 yards, those that remain are closer to
the beach. Some of the smaller ones are on the banks of small streams but
never very far from shore. Undoubtedly, however, they were at one time
considerably farther from the sea. but the sea is every year claiming some
of this land, especially where the banks are high along the beach. There the
lieach is narrow and during a gale the waves wash out the land at its base.
This is about all that I can tell you of these people. All credit for finding
these mounds belongs to Van Valin.
Yours truly, Chas. D. Beowes.
The mfiterial. — The collection as received at the TVistar Institute
was notable for its general dark color, enhanced in many of the
specimens by dark to black remains of the tissues. There was no
mineralization and but little bone decay, though the bones were
somewhat brittle.
There is a scarcity of children and adolescents; there are in fact
only two skulls of subjects less than 20 years of age in the collection.
The skulls and bones that remain show no violence.
The remains show a complete freedom from .syphilis or other con-
stitutional disease; the only pathological condition present in some
of the bones being arthritis. This speaks strongly for their preced-
HRDLIOKA]
A STRANGE GROUP OF ESKIMO
321
ing the contact with whites. The surface series, though smaller,
shows three syphilitic skulls. An additional fact of interest is the
absence in both the igloo and the surface series of all marks of
scurvy. Such marks are fairly common farther southward. Finally,
none of the siculls are deformed, either in life or posthumously.
Anthropological Observations and Measurements on the
Collections
Age. — The first observations made on the igloo material were those
as to the individual ages of the bodies. Such observations are neces-
sarily rough, yet within sufficiently broad limits fairly reliable. The
criteria are principally the condition of the teeth and that of the
sutures. The possible error in such estimates is, experience has
shown, as a rule well within 10 years in the older and within 5 years
in the young adults or subadults.
One of the objects of these observations on the " igloo " material
was to get some further light on whether the remains were those
of a group that perished of an epidemic, famine, or some other sud-
den agency, or whether they represented just burials. The age dis-
tribution of the dead would differ considerably in the two cases.
Estimated Ages at Death
lOLOO MATERIAL
Males (27)
Females (25)
Mean, both sexes
20 to 25
Per cent
11
16
13. 5
30 to 40
Per cent
15
24
19
Per cent
41
44
42.5
Per cent
33
16
25
surface series
Males (21) . ... ...
5
36
17
48
36
43
48
Females (14)
Mean, both sexes . . .
29
11. 5
29. 5
The above table shows the data obtained, with those on the surface
material from the same collection and known to be that of ordinary
burials.
The results do not agree with the composition of the living popu-
lation but are apparently near to what might be expected in burials.
Taking the sexes apart, the series from the surface shows a somewhat
more favorable condition for the men, but worse for the women.
Taking the materials, however, regardless of sex, the proportions of
322
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA
[ETH. ANX. 46
nges in the earlier igloos and in the late surface burials ai'e practically
identical. This points strongly against the idea of the igloo remains
being those of people who either died there of starvation, of an epi-
demic, of being smothered, or of some other sudden affliction, and to
their having been just ordinary burials.
To arrive at something still more definite, if possible, I appealed
on the one hand to the United States Census and on the other to
Doctor Dublin of the Metropolitan Life Insurance Co., New York,
for data as to the distribution of ages among the dead, using the same
age-categories as in the case of the " igloo " material. The data fur-
nished by Miss E. Foudray through Dr. Wm. H. Davis, Chief Statis-
tician of the Bureau of the Census, are particularly to the point.
They are as follows :
Per Cent Age Distribution of Indian Population in Axa.ska Aged 20 Years
AND Over, According to the Census of 1900
20 to 24
25 to 44
4.1 to .54
55 and over
Males - -- ---_-
17.8
19. 4
IS. 6
54. 2
53.3
53. 7
15. 9
15.9
15.9
12. 1
Females - _
11. 4
11.8
Pee Cent Age Distribution at Death (E.stimated) of Indian Popci-ation of
Alaska in 1900, Who. Had They Ln-ED, Wouxd Have Appe.\red in the Cen-
sus OP 1910 AT Ages 20 Years and Over
20 to 24
25 to 44
45 to 54
55 and over
13.2
11.9
12. 6
43.9
47.0
45.4
21.3
19.5
20. 4
21. 6
Females.. .
21. 6
Both sexes .
21. 6
There is a remarkable agreement of these figures with those
obtained on both the Igloo and the Barrow surface burial material,
except that for the two middle age series the figures are reversed.
This may mean an error in the two respective estimates on the In-
dians, or it may mean that for these two ages the conditions among
the Eskimo concerned were better than they were in 1900 among the
Alaska Indians.
All the above, together with the details on the orderly treatment
of the bodies, and the absence of such conditions as were encountered
in the dead villages on St. Lawrence Island (Hooper, Nelson), in-
clines one to the conclusion that the Igloo remains, however excep-
tional the method for the Eskimo, were just burials.
HRDLICKA]
A STRANGE GKOUP OF ESKIMO
323
Physical Characteristics
The skull. — The most noteworthy feature about the Igloo remains
is the marked distinctiveness of tlie skull. This strikes the observer
at the first sight of the specimens, and the impression is only strength-
ened by detail examination. Tlie skulls are very narrow, long, and
liigh. They differ jjlainly from anj'thing except occasional indi-
vidual specimens, either about Barrow or along the rest of the west
coast of Alaska, with the jjossible excejjtion of a few groups of
Seward Peninsula. They recall stronglj' the crania of Labrador and
.south Greenland. It is the Labrador-Greenland type throughout,
men, women, and even the two children. It is a group outside of the
range of local variation. It is a strange Eskimo group, either de-
veloped here in former times as it developed in Greenland and
Labrador, and possibly the Seward Peninsula, or one tliat had come
here from places where such type had already been realized.
The following data (the individual measurements will appear in a
later number of the Catalogue of Crania) show the differences be-
tween the Igloo and the surface material, the latter both of the Van
Valin and of the author's collections, and the valuable Stefansson
material, now at the American Maseum, from Point Barrow. They
need but little comment. They show clearly on one hand the wholly
Eskimo nature of the Igloo skulls, and on the other their distinct-
ness from those of the later burials, both of Barrow and Point Bar-
row. The vault especially is characteristic — narrow, long, high, more
or less keel-shaped. The face in general is much more alike in the
three groups; nevertheless its absolute height and breadth in the
Igloo series are slightly smaller than in the other two, and there
are minor differences in the orbits and the palate.
Eskimo Crania, Barhow and Vicinity
Old Igloos
Surface burials, Barrow
Surface burials, Point
Barrow
Males
(27)
Females
(25)
Males
(37)
Females
(36)
Males
(49)
Females
(52)
Vault:
Length maximum.
Breadth maxi-
mum
Basion - bregma
height
Cranial index
Height-breadth
index
19.25
13. 30
14.02
69. I
105. 5
86. 2
15. 52
18. 11
12. 72
13. 21
70. 2
104. 6
86. 4
14. 72
IS. 90
13.73
13. 78
72. 6
99.6
84.6
15. 46
17. 77
13. 23
12. 97
74.5
98. 1
82. 9
14. 66
IS. 74
13.84
13.78
73. 9
99.6
84. 7
15. 44
17. 91
13.32
13. 08
74.4
97. 8
Mean height index .
Cranial module
83. 4
14. 75
324 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETii. anx. m
Eskimo Crania, Barrow and Vicinity — Continued
Old Igloos
Males
(27)
Females
(25)
Surface burials, Barrow
Males
(37)
Females
(36)
Surface hurials, Point
Barrow
Males
(49)
Females
(52)
Face:
Height: menton-
nasion
Height: upper al-
veolar p o i li t -
nasion
Breadth: Diam-
eter bizygomatic
maximum
Facial index, total.
Facial index, up-
per
Basion-nasion
Basion - subnasal
point
Basion - upper al-
veolar point
Lower jaw: Height at
symphysis
Orbits:
Mean height
Mean breadth
Mean index
Nose:
Height
Breadth
Index
Alveolar arch:
Length
Breadth
Index
12. 4
7.7
14. 2
86. 9
54-5
10. 70
9. 33
10. 45
3. 72
3. 62
3.97
91. 3
5. 45
2.37
43.6
5. 57
6.68
83. 4
11. 21
7.01
13. 08
86. S
53. 8
10. 18
9. 12
10. 13
3.38
3.47
4. 01
91
5.02
2.23
44-4
5.34
6. 29
84. 9
7.89
14.34
7. 18
13. 16
55
10. 61
9. 31
10. 39
3. 95
3.60
4.04
89. 2
5. 52
2. 39
43.4
5. 59
6.45
54. 7
10.01
8. 86
9. 85
3.27
3. 61
3.88
93
5. 19
2.32
44.7
5. 22
6. 13
85. 1
7.86
14. 26
55.1
10.54
9. 23
10. 39
3. 9
3. 61
4.02
89.9
5. 48
2. 31
42. 2
5. 63
6.47
86. 9
7. 22
13. 06
55. 3
9. 94
8.73
9.77
3. 55
3. 90
90. 7
5. 11
2.29
44-9
5. 25
6. 01
87.4
Let us now contrast the Igloo .skulls with tliose of southern Green-
land from the collection of the United States National Museum.^"
The size of the .series is such that they are nicely comparable. And
to the two is added a small recent series (A. H., 1926, and Collins,
1928), from Golovnin Bay and Sledge Island (Seward Peninsula).
™ The measurements of tbi.s series have been published by the writer in the first part
of the Catalogue of Human Crania in the U. S. National Museum (Proc. U. S. N. M..
1924, Lxiii, art. 12. p. 26), but as a few errors crept in, the whole series was remeasured
by the writer.
hkdliCka]
A STKANGE GEOUP OF ESKIMO
325
Main Measurements op the Barrow "Igloo" and of Greenland Eskimo
Crania
Golovnin
Bay and
Sledge
Island
Igloos
Greenland
Females
Golovnin
Bay and
Sledge
Island
Igloos
(13)
(25)
18. 03
18. 11
13. 36
12. 72
13.21
13. 21
74.1
70.2
97.9
104.6
84,2
86.4
14. 87
14. 72
11. 98
11. 21
7.35
7.01
13. 25
13.08
90. 4
S6.8
B6. 4
53.8
3.58
3.47
3.92
4 01
91. 2
91
5. 15
5.02
2. 29
2.23
44.5
44-4
Greenland
Number of specimens __
Vault:
Length
Breadth
Height
Cranial index
Height - breadth
index
Mean height index
Module
Face:
Menton-nasion
height
Alveolar point-
nasion height
Breadth
Facial index, total-
Facial index, up-
per
Orbits:
Mean height
Mean breadth j
Mean index
Nose:
Height
Breadth
Index
(8)
19.20
13.70
14.08
71.3
102. 8
85. 6
15. 66
12. 70
7.90
14. 29
88. 9
55.3
3.65
4. 11
5. 58
2.35
L2. 1
(27)
19.25
13.30
14.02
69. 1
105.5
86. 2
15. 52
12. 39
7.71
14. 16
86. 9
64-5
3.62
3.97
91.3
5. 45
2.37
43. 6
(49)
18.97
13. 61
13. 95
71. 8
102. 5
85. 7
15. 51
12.38
7.61
14.05
87. 1
64. 1
3.64
3.99
91.4
5.24
2.27
43.3
(52)
18.04
12. 98
13. 12
72
101
84. 6
14.72
11.52
7.05
13.03
85. 7
54.1
3.55
3.85
92. 4
4.99
2.20
A comparison of the Igloo and Greenland series shows striking
similarities ; hardly any two geographically separate groups originat-
ing from a single source could reasonably be expected to come nearer.
The Igloo skulls are even narrower in the vault than the Green-
landers, which means so much farther away from the southwestern,
midwestern, and Asiatic Eskimo; and offer a few other differences,
but all these are of small moment, not affecting the essential rela-
tions of the two groups.
A comparison of the Igloo and Greenland series with the material
from Golovnin Bay and Sledge Island shows also numerous similari-
ties but with them some rather material differences. The differences
are especially marked in the females, whose characteristics approach
326 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [eTH. ANN. 46
more those of the midwestern Eskimo, which suggests that an im-
portant proportion of them may have been derived from the latter.
However, even the males tend to diifer. Both sexes show absolutely
a somewhat broader skull than that of the northerners ; in both sexes
the skull, as seen from the cranial module, is slightly larger in the
Seward Peninsula series than in either of the other groups; but the
principal differences are seen in the face, which in the Seward
Peninsula group is jjerceptibly larger and especially higher than it
is in either the Igloo or the Greenland seri-es. The orbits also in the
southerners are larger and the nose is slightly higher.
On the whole it may be said that the resemblance of the Igloo
crania to those of Greenland is closer than that to either or both of
the series of Golovnin Bay and Sledge Island. This suggests the
possibility that a similar though not quite the same differentiation in
the skull may have taken place both in the Seward Peninsula and in
the far north; though the possibility of a derivation of any one of
the three groups from any of the others can not be discarded. So
far as the skull is concerned a definite solution of the identity of the
Igloo material would have to be, it would seem, postponed to the
future.
The used data on the Greenland Eskimo skulls agree closely with
those of Fiirst and Hansen (Crania Groenlandica, fol., 1915), and
also with the much fewer and scattered records of Virchow, Davis,
Duckworth, Oetteking, Pittard, etc.,*" on Eskimo skulls from
Labrador.
Stature and strength. — The bones of the skeleton of the Igloo series
show the i^eople to have been of good height and of above medium
Eskimo robustness. The principal measurements are given below,
together with the corresponding ones on the western and the Yukon
Eskimo. The material is not all that could be wished for, either in
numbers or representation, but it will suffice for rough comparisons.
Regrettably nothing for comparison is available as yet from Green-
land or other parts of the far northeast where we meet with long,
narrow, and high skulls.
*» For more exact references see writer's Contribution to the Antliropology of Central
and Smith Sound Eskimo, Anthrop. Papers Am. Mub. Nat. Hist., N. Y., 1910, V, pt. 2 ;
and tlie bibliography at the end of this volume.
hrdlicka]
A STRANGE GROUP OF ESKIMO
327
The Long Bones of the Igloo People and Other Eskimo Bones of the
Two Sides Together
Male
Female
Igloo
Seward
Peninsula
and north-
western
Eskimo
Yukon
Eskimo
Igloo
.Seward
Peninsula
and north-
western
Eskimo
Yukon
Eskimo
Humerus: Length-
(35)
(100)
(16)
(27)
(83)
(16)
maximum
31. 17
31. 17
32. 10
28.41
28.82
28. 31
At middle:
Diameter, major..
2. 47
2. 46
2.33
2.11
2. 15
2.07
Diameter, minor. _
1. 86
1. 85
1.80
1.60
1.62
1.51
Index
75.2
(31)
75. 1
(37)
78. 2
(16)
76. 1
(17)
75. 1
(24)
73.2
Radius: Length, max-
(16)
imum
23. 53
75.5
23. 50
75. 4-
23.44
73
20. 98
73.8
21.35
74
20. 18
Radio-humeral index. .
71.3
Femur: Length, bicon-
(33)
(60)
(22)
(25)
(31)
(27)
d)-lar
43. 86
71. 1
43. 46
71. 7
43. 78
73
40. 31
70.5
40. 44
71.3
41. 11
Humero-femoral index.
69
At middle:
Diameter, ante-
ro-posterior
3.37
3. 21
3.05
2. 88
2. 88
2. 74
Diameter, lateral.
2. 90
2. 72
2. 67
2.51
2.56
2.44
Index
86. 1
84.8
87.6
87.3
88.9
88. 8
At upper flattening:
Diameter, maxi-
mum
3.51
3.32
3.31
3.09
3.06
a 02
Diameter, mini-
mum
2. 71
77. 2
2. 59
78. 1
2.57
77. 4
2.30
74-4
2. 40
78.4
2.27
Index
75. 4
Tibia: Length in posi-
(29)
(79)
(22)
(24)
(36)
(27)
tion
35.60
81.2
35. 52
81. 7
35. 14
80.3
31.94
79. 2
32.50
80.4
32. 01
Tibio-femoral index
79. S
At middle:
Diameter, ante-
ro-posterior
3.26
3. 19
3. 16
2.80
2.75
2.61
Diameter, lateral.
2.20
2. 16
2. 15
1.87
1. 92
1.90
Index
67.5
67.8
68.3
66. 7
70
72. 8
The above table shows some remarkable and interesting condi-
tions.
The first of the most apparent facts is that the type of the Yukon
Eskimo stands well apart from both of the other series in a number
of essentials, showing that it is not very nearly related and that it
may be left out of consideration.
On the other hand the long bones from the Seward Peninsula and
the northwest coast, especially those of the males, show very closely to
328 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IK ALASKA [eth. ann. 46
those of the Igloo group. The male bones of the two series are almost
identical, except that the Igloo bones are somewhat stronger.
Such close resemblances can hardly be fortuitous. They speak
strongly for the basic identity of the old Igloo people with those of at
least parts of the Seward Peninsula and parts of the northwest
coast. If we take the bones from the Seward Peninsula alone (see
p. 314) it is found that these resemblances still hold.
The evidence thus shown constitutes a strong indication that the
old Igloo group may be inherently related to that part of the Eskimo
population of Seward Peninsula which shows the long and nari-ow
skull; but the data offer no light on the questions as to whether the
Igloo group may have been derived from that of the Seward Penin-
sula or vice versa, and on the true relation of either or both of these to
the Eskimo of Baffin Land, Greenland, and Labrador.
To definitely decide the problem of the Igloo group there are needed
data on the long bones of the northeasterners; in the second lAace it
is highly desirable to know how large and how ancient was the group
of the narrow-headed people on the Seward Peninsula and Sledge
Island; and in the third place it is important that the cultural history
of the two groujjs be known as thoroughly as possible. All of which
are tasks for the future.
The possibility of a development of the Igloo cranial type on the
northwest coast itself can not be denied, in view of the facts that
all its characteristics are within tlie ranges of normal individual
variations on that coast, and that similar developments have evi-
dently been realized elsewhere. But in such a case it would be
logical to expect, locally or not far away, some ancestry of the group,
and the group would not probably be limited to a little spot and a
few scores of persons. Had the group developed incidentally from
a physicallj'' exceptional familj', it could not be expected to have
been anywhere nearly as uniform as the group under consideration.
The high degree of uniformity of the Igloo contingent speaks for
a well accomplished differentiation; and as there is no other trace of
this in the conditions near Barrow, and there are no ruins denoting
a long occupation, the evidence is against a local development and
for an immigration of the gr«up. A coming of a small-sized con-
tingent from the Seward Peninsula would be easy; its coming from
Greenland ,or Labrador or Baffin Land would surely be difficult, but
not impossible to the Eskimo, wlio is known to have been a traveler.
Wliatever may be the eventual solution of the Igloo problem, it is
plain that the presence of that group near Barrow, together with the
presence of evidently closely related groups in a part of the Seward
Peninsula and again in the far east of the Eskimo region, offers much
food for thought and investigation. The most plausible pcssibility
hbdliCka] origin and antiquity of the ESKIMO 329
Avould seem to be a relatively late (within the laiesent millennium)
coming of a physically already well differentiated small group, from
either the south or the east, with a relatively short settlement at the
Barrow site, some local multiplication in numbers, and then extinc-
tion partly through disease, partly perhaps through absorption into
a stronger and newer contingent derived from the western people.
ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF THE ESKIMO
All anthropological research on the Eskimo has naturally one ulti-
mate object, which is the clearing up of the problems of the origin
and antiquity of this highly interesting human strain; and it may
well be asked what further light on these problems has been shed
by the studies here dealt with. To show this with a proper perspec-
tive it will be requisite to briefly review the previous ideas on these
problems.
Oeigin of the Name " Eskimo "
According to Charlevoix (Nouv. France, III, 178), the term
" Eskimo " is a corruption of the Abenaki Indian Esquimantsic or
the Ojibway Ashkimeg, both terms meaning "those who eat raw
flesh." In the words of Captain Hooper,*^ " Neither the origin nor
meaning of the name ' Esquimaux,' or Eskimo, as it is now spelled,
is known. According to Doctor Kink, the name ' Esquimaux ' was
first given to the inhabitants of Southern Labrador as a term of deri-
sion by the inhabitants of Northern Labrador, and means raw-fish
eater. Dall says the appellation ' Eskimo ' is derived from a word
indicating a sorcerer or shaman in the language of the northern
tribes."
For Brinton,''- as for Charlevoix, the term '^ Eskimo " is dei'ivetl
from the Algonkin " Eskimantick," " eaters of raw flesh." Accord-
ing to Chamberlain,*^ Sir John Richardson (Arctic Seai'ching Exp.,
p. 203) attempts to derive it from the French words ceux qui miaux
(miaulent), referring to their clamorous outcries on the approach
of a ship. Petitot (Chambers Encyc, Ed. 1880, IV, p. 165, article
Esquimaux) says that at the present day the Crees, of Lake Atha-
basca, call them Wis-Kimowok (from Wiyas flesh, aski raw, and
mowew to eat), and also Ayiskimiwok (i. e., those who act in secret).
In Labrador the English sometimes call the Eskimo " Huskies " (loc.
cit., p. ix. 7. Chambers Encyc, article Esquimaux. See Hind. Trav.
in Int. of Labr., loc. cit., and Petitot loc. cit., p. ix.) and Suckemos
^ Hooper, C. L., Cruise of the U. S. revenue steamer Corwin, 1S81. Washington,
1884, p. 99.
•1= Brinton, D. C, Mytlis of the New World. 1868, p. 23. New Yorli.
■"Chamberlain, A. F., The Eslcimo race and language. Proc. Canadian Inst., 3d ser.,
vol. Ti, pp. 2GT-2CS. Toronto, 1889.
88253°— 30 22
330 ANTHKOPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [bth. ann. 46
(Richai'dson, Arctic Searching Expedition, p. 202) and Dall (Proc.
Am. Ass. Adv. Sci., 1869, p. 266) says that in Alaska the Tinneh
Indians call them " Uskeeme " (sorcerers).
The Eskimo call themselves " Innuit," said to be the ijlui'al of
in-nu, the man, hence " the people " ; the same being as a rule the
meaning of the name by which the various tribes of the Indian call
themselves.
On the Asiatic coast the Eskimo is known as the " Yuit," " On-
kilon," " Chouklouks," or " Namollo "; while in the east appears the
name " Karalit."
None of this has thrown any light on the origin of the Eskimo.
Opinions Bt Former and Living Students
Origin in Asia. — Many opinions on the origin of the Eskimo have
been expressed by diti'erent authors. Among the earliest of these
were those of missionaries, such as Crantz (1779), and of the early
explorers, such as Steller, v. Wrangell, Liitke and others. They were
based on the general aspect of the Eskimo, particularly that of his
physiognomy; and seeing that in many features he resembled most
the mongoloid peoples of Asia they attached him to these, which
meant the conclusion that he was of Asiatic derivation. Quite soon,
however, there began to appear also the opinions of students of man.
The first of these was that of Blumenbach, as expressed in his In-
augural Thesis of 1781. In this thesis, more particularly its second
edition, he classifies the Eskimo expressly as a part of the Caucasian
or white race. But after obtaining an Eskimo skull and an Eskimo
body he changes his oi^inion and in 1795-1806 he comes out with a
definite classification of the Eskimo as a member of the Mongolians;
and a similar conclusion, with its implied or expressed consequence
of a migration from Asia to America, has been reached since, mainly
on somatological but also in part on linguistic and cultural bases,
by a large number of authors, including Lawrence, Morton, Picker-
ing, Latham, Flower, Peschel, Topinard, Brinton, Virchow (1877),
Quatrefages and Hamy (1882), Thalbitzer, Bogoras and numerous
others. With all of this, the conception of the Asiatic origin of the
Eskimo has not passed the status of a strong probability, lacking a
final conclusive demonstration.
A chronological list of the more noteworthy individual statements
is given at the end of this section.
OHgin in America. — Since the earlier parts of the nineteenth
century the opinion began to be expressed that the Eskimo is not of
Asiatic but of American origin. Already in 1847 Prichard tells us
that there are those who " consider them as belonging to the Amer-
ican family," and he plainly favors this conception.
HRDLILKA] ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF THE ESKIMO 331
Between 1873 and 1890 the American origin of the Eskimo is re-
peatedly asserted by Rink, who for 16 winters and 22 summers lived
with the eastern Eskimo, first as a scientific explorer and later as
I'oyal inspector or governor of the southern Danish settlements in
Greenland (preface by R. Brown to Rink's Tales and Traditions,
1875). In this opinion, briefly, the Eskimo were derived from the
inland Indian tribes of Alaska ; without referring to the origin of the
Indian.
Rink's authoritative opinion was followed or paralleled by Daniel
Wilson (1876), Grote, Krause, Ray, Keane, Brown, and others. In
1887 Chamberlain expresses the somewhat startling additional theory
that it was not the Eskimo who was derived from the Mongolians
but the Mongolians from the Eskimo or their American ancestors.
And in 1901-1910 Boas comes to the conclusion that the Eskimo
probably originated from the inland tribes (Indian?) in the Hudson
Bay region.
An interesting case in these connections is that of Rudolf Virchow.
In 1877 (see details at the end of this section) he expresses the belief
in the Eskimo coming from Asia; in 1878 he seems to be uncertain;
and in 1885 he comes out in support of tlie opinion that tlie original
home of the Eskimo may have been in the western part of the Hudson
Bay region. Among later students of the problem, Steensby ** and
Birket-Smith ^^ incline on cultural grounds to this hypothesis.
Wissler, not explicit as to the Eskimo in 1917 (The American In-
dian), in 1918 (Archaeology of the Polar Eskimo) finds, after
Steensby, the most acceptable theory of the Eskimo origin to be that
" they expanded from a parent group in the Arctic Archipelago " ;
but in 1922, in the second edition of his The American Indian, he
repeats word for word his opinion of 1917, which appears to favor
an Asiatic derivation.
Origin m Europe — Identity with Upper Palaeolithic nmn. — About
the sixties of last century growing discoveries in France of imple-
ments, etc., of later palaeolithic man brought about a realization that
not a few of these implements and other objects, particularly tho.se
of the Magdalenian period, resembled like implements and objects
of the Eskimo; from which, together with the considerations of tb»
similarities of fauna (reindeer, musk-ox, etc.), and of climate, there
was but a step to a more or less definite identification of the Magda-
lenians and Solutreans with the Eskimo. In 1870 Pruner-Bey *"
claims a similarity between Solutrean and Eskimo skulls. In 1883
" Contr. Ethn. and Anthropogcog. Polar Eskimos, Med. om Gronl., xxxiv, Copenhagen,
1910; also, Origin of the Eskimo culture, ibid., 1016, 204-218.
^ Internat. Congr. Americanists, New York, 1928.
*> In Ferry, H. de, Le Maconnais prehistorique, etc., 1 vol, Macon, 1870, with a section
by Pruner-Bey.
332 ANTHBOPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ann. 46
these views received the influential support of De Mortillet (see
details). In 1889 the theory receives strong support from the char-
acteristics of the Chancelade (Magdalenian) skeleton which Testut
declares are in many respects almost identical with those of the
Eskimo. And within the next few years the notion is upheld by
Hamy and Herve. It remains sympathetic as late as 1913 to Marcel-
lin Boule, and finds most recent champions in Morin and Sollas.
However, there were also many who opposed the effort at a direct
connection of the ujDper palaeolithic man of Europe and the Eskimo.
Among these were Geikie, Flower, Rae, Daniel Wilson, Robert
Brown, Dechelette, Laloy. At present the theory is supported
mainly by Morin and Sollas, opposed by Steensby, Burkitt, Keith,
MacCurdy, and others; while most students of the Eskimo ignore
the question.
Other hypotheses. — Besides the preceding ideas which attribute
the origin of the Eskimo to Asia, or America, or old Euroi>e, there
were also others that failed to receive a wider support ; and there
were authors and students who remained undecided or were too
cautious to definitely formulate their l)eliefs. Some of the former
as well as the latter deserve brief mention.
Gallatin, in 1836, mainly on linguistic grounds, recognizes the
fundamental relation of the Eskimo and the Indian and seems in-
clined to the American origin of the former, but makes no clear state-
ment to that effect. For Meigs (1857), who probably followed an
earlier opinion, the Eskimo came " from the islands of the Polar
Sea." C. C. Abbott (1876) saw Eskimo in the early inhabitants of
the Delaware Valley. To Grote (1875, 1877), the Eskimo were " the
existing representatives of the man of the American glacial epoch ";
thej' were modified Pliocene men. Nordenskiold (1885) follows
closely Meigs and Grote; the Eskimo may be " the true autochthones
of the Polar regions," having inhabited them from before the glacial
age, during more genial climate. Keane (1886) believed the Eskimo
developed from the Aleuts. For De Quatrefages (1887), man origi-
nated in the Tertiary in northern Asia, spread from there, and some
of his contingents may have reached America and been the ancestors
of the Eskimo ; the western tribes of the latter being a mixture of the
Eskimo with Asiatic brachycephals. Nansen (1893) avoids a dis-
cussion of the origin of the Eskimo; and the same caution is ob-
servable more or less in most modern writers.
The following chart of the more noteworthy opinions regarding
the origin of the Eskimo will sliow at a glance the diversity of the
views and their lack of conclusiveness.
HBDLIl KA]
ORIGIX AXD ANTIQUITY OF THE ESKIMO
333
Theokies as to the Origin of the Eskimo
Asiatic:
Steller 1743
Cranz 1779
Blumenbach... 1795
Lawrence 1822
Von Wrangell. 1839
Morton 1839
McDonald 1841
Latham 1850
Pickering 1854
Wilson 1863
Rae 1865,
1877-78, 1886
Markham 1865,
1875
Wliymper 1869
Pescliel 1876
Kuhl 1876
Petitot 1876
Topinard 1877
Virchow 1877
Ball 1877
Palmer 1879
Henry 1879
Dawson 1880
Quatrefages___ 1882,
1887
Elliot 1886
Flower 1886
Brown 1888
Ratzel 1897
Hrdlicka- 1910,1924
Asiatic — Con.
Thalbitzer 1914
F first and Han-
sen 1915
Wissler 1917
Mathiassen 1921
Bogoras._ 1924, 1927
American:
Prichard 1847
Rink 1873, 1888
Holmes 1873
Wilson 1876
Grote 1877
Krause 1883
Ray 1885
Virchow 1885
Keane___ 1886, 1887
Brown 1888
Murdoch 1888
Chamberlain.- 1889
Quatrefages 1889
Boas 1907, 1910
Wissler 1917
European or con-
nected with Eu-
rope:
Lartet and
Christy 1864
Dawkins 1866
Herve 1870
Abbott 1876
De Mortillet_ . 1883
European — Con.
Testut 1889
Boule 1913
SoUas... 1924, 1927
Opposed to Europe:
Brown .
Burkitt.
Dechelette.
Flower.
Geikie.
Keith.
Laloy.
MacCurdy.
Rae.
Steensby.
Wilson.
Hrdlicka (1910).
Miscellaneous and
indefinite:
Gallatin 1836
Richardson 1852
Meigs 1857
Grote 1875
Abbott 1876
Nordenskiold.. 1885
Keane 1886
Quatrefages 1887
Nansen 1893
Tarenetzky 1900
Nadaillac 1902
Jenness 1928
ASIATICS
Steller. 1743 : " Several references -n-liich indicate that Steller re-
garded the E.skimo as related to the northeastern Asiatics.
Cranz, 1779 : ^'^ Points out the resemblances of the Eskimo (and
their product) to the Kalmuks, Yakuts, Timgus, and Kamchadales,
and derives them from northeastern Asia (forced by other peoples
through Tartary to the farthest northeast of Asia and then to
America) .
Blumenbach, 1781 : *' Tlie first of the five varieties of mankind
" and the largest, which is also the primeval one, embraces the whole
" Steller, G. W., Journal, 1743. Transl. and repr. in Bering's Voyages, Am. Geog.
Soc. Research, ser. I, 2 vols., vol. ii, p. 9 et seq. New York, 1922.
'- Cranz, David, ni.ftorie von Gronland, Frankf. and Leipz.. 1779. .300-.301.
'"Blumenbach, J. F., De generis humaui varietate uativa. 2d ed., Goettingen, 1781;
in The anthropological treatises of J. F. Blumenbach, Anthr. Soc. Lond., 1865, p. 99,
ftn. 4.
334 ANTHROPOLOGICAL STJBVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 46
of Europe, includinc: the Lapps, * * * and lastlj', in America,
the Greenlanders and the Esquimaux, for I see in these people a
wonderful difference from the other inhabitants of America; and,
unless I am altogether deceived, I think they must be derived from
the Finns."
But in his '' Beitriige zur Naturgeschichte," 2d ed., Gottingen,
1806, Blumenbach classes both the Lapps and the Eskimo with the
Mongolians (Anthr. Treatises of Blumenbach, Lond., 1865, p. 304) :
" The remaining Asiatics, except the Malays, with the Lapps in
Europe, and the Esquimaux in the north of America, from Bering
Strait to Labrador and Greenland. They are for the most part of
a wheaten yellow, with scanty, straight, black hair, and have flat
faces with laterally projecting cheek bones, and narrowly slit
eyelids."
Von Wrangell, 1839 : ^o " * * * jin-e sclavische Abhiingigkeit
von den Rennthier-Tschuktschen beweist, dass die letztern spatere
Einwanderer und Eroberer des Landes sind, welches sie jetzt inne
haben."
Lawrence, 1822 : " " The Mongolian variety * * * includes the
numerous more or less rude, and in great part nomadic tribes, which
occupy central and northern Asia; * * * and the tribes of Eski-
iiiaux extending over the northern parts of America, from Bering
Strait to the extremity of Greenland. * * *.
" The Eskimaux are formed on the Mongolian model, although
they inhabit countries so different from the abodes of the original
tribes of central Asia."
Latham, 1850 : ^- " Our only choice lies between the doctrine that
makes the American nations to have originated from one or more
separate pairs of progenitors, and the doctrine that either Bering
Strait or the line of islands between Kamskatka and the Peninsula
of Alaska, was the highway between the two worlds — from Asia to
America, or vice verea. * * * Against America, and in favor of
Asia being the birthplace of the human race — its unity being as-
sumed— I know many valid reasons. * * * Physically, the
Eskimo is a Mongol and Asiatic. Philologically, he is American."
1851 : ■" " Just as the Eskimo graduate in the American Indian, so
do they pass into the populations of northeastern Asia — language
being the instrument which the present writer has more especially
™A'on Wrangell, in Baer and Helmersen's " Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Russischen
Reiches," pp. 58-59. St. Petersburg, 1839.
^ Lawrence, W., Lectures on physiology, zoology, and the natural history of man,
pp. 511-513. London. 1822.
^- Latham, Robert Gordon, The Natural history of the Tarieties of man, pp. 289-291.
London, 1850.
'^ Latiam, Robert Gordon, Man and his migrations, p. 124. London, 1851.
HRDLifKA] ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF THE ESKIMO 335
employed in their affiliation. From the Peninsula of Alaska to the
Aleutian cliain of islands, and from the Aleutian chain to Kamskatka
is the probable course of the migration from Asia to America — traced
backwards, i. e., from the goal to the starting point, from the circum-
ference to the center."
Pickering, 18.54 : ^* " The Arctic Regions seem exclusively possessed
by the Mongolian race."
Wilson, 18G3:" "The same mode of comparison which confirms
the ethnical affinities between the Esquimaux and their insular or
Asiatic congeners, reveals, in some respects, analogies rather than
contrast between the dolichocephalic Indian crania and those of the
hyperborean race."
Markliam, 1856 : ^^ " The interesting question now arises — whence
came these Greenland Esquimaux, these Innuit, or men, as they call
themselves, and as I think (hey ought to be called by us? They are
not descendants of the Skroellings of the opposite American coast,
as has alread_y been seen. It is clear that they can not have come
from the eastward, over the ocean which intervenes between Lapland
and Greenland, for no Esquimaux traces have ever been found on
Spitzbergen. Iceland, or Jan Mayen. We look at them and see at
once that they have no kinship with the red race of America ; but a
glance suffices to convince us of their relationship with the northern
tribes of Siberia. It is in Asia, then, that we must seek their origin."
TTIiymper, 18G9: ^' " That the coast natives of northern Alaska are
but Americanized Tehuktchis from Asia, I myself have no doubt."
Peschel, 1876 : "^ " The identity of their language with that of the
Namollo, their skill on the sea, their domestication of the dog, their
use of the sledge, the Mongolian type of their faces, their capability
for higher civilization, are sufficient reasons for answering the ques-
tion, whether a migration took place from Asia to America or con-
versely from America to Asia, in favor of the former alternative;
yet such a migration from Asia by way of Bering Strait must have
occurred at a much later period than the first colonization of the
New World from the Old one * * *
" It is not likely that the Eskimo spread from America to Asia,
because of all Americans they have preserved the greatest resem-
blance in racial characters to the Mongolian nations of the Old
" Pickering. Charles, The races of man, p. 7. London, 1854.
"^ Wilson, Daniel, riiysical ethnology. Smithsonian Report for 1SG2, p. 262. Wash-
ington, 1S63.
™Marl5ham, C. R.. On the origin and migrations of the Greenland Esquimaux. .1.
Roy. Geog. Soc, xxxv, p. 90. London, 1865.
f^' Whymper, Frederick, Travels in Alaska and on the Yukon, p. 214. New York, 1869.
" Peschel, Oscar, The races of man, pp. 396-97. New York, 1876.
336 ANTHROPOLOGICAL STJEVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 4G
World, and in historical times their migrations have always taken
place in an easterly direction."
Kuhl, 1876 : °^ " Bilden so die Eskimo in der Sprache das Binde-
glied zwischen America unci Asien, so ist dies noch viel mehr der
Fall in Bezug aiif ihren Typus : dieser stimmt bei den Polarvolkern
diesseits und jenseits der Beringsstrasse 'zum Verwechseln ' iiberein,
wie denn auch ein bestandiger Verkehr hiniiber und heriiber
stattfindet. Hierin liegt der unwiderstehliche Beweis, class diese
Polarvdlker wenigstens von einer Herkunft sind und class eine
Einwanderung von einem Continente in das andere hier stattge-
funden hat. Haben wir nun die Wahl, entweder die Eskimo aus
Asien nach America, oder die Tschuktschen, die dort auf der
Asiatischen Seite wohnen, aus America einwandern zu lassen — wof in-
sich auch Stimmen erhoben haben — so werden wir keinen Augenblick
zweifelhaft sein: eine spiitere Riickwanderung eines einzelnen
Stammes in das Land der Viiter wai-e immerhin denkbar; aber wer
liber die Tschuktschen hinweg die Sache in's Grosse sieht, kann fiir
die Urzeit nur eine Einwandervmg von Asien nach America, nicht
umgekehrt, annehmen, und hierf iir finden wir ausser den allgemeinen
Griinden, welche uns der Verlauf Tmserer Untersuchungen nahe
gebracht, noch zwei besondere Beweise bei den Eskimo : einmal
konnen wir die Spur ihrer Wanderungen historisch verfolgen, und
diese waren nach Osten gerichtet, sodass sie Gronland, mit dem
heute ihr Name so eng verbunden ist. zuletzt erreichten (S. 209) ;
sodann haben die Eskimo allein unter den Americanischen Stiimmen
das Mongolische Gepriige ganz luiversehrt bewahrt — dies bliebe
unerklJirlich, wenn sie Americanische Autochthonen wiiren * * *
Einen deutlichen Hinweis auf die Urheimath Asien enthalten auch
die Wanderungen der Stiimme durch das Americanische Continent,
soweit wir dieselben verfolgen kiinnen."
Dall, 1877 : ^'o " I see, therefore, no reason for disputing the hypoth-
esis that America was peopled from Asia originally, and that there
were successive waves of emigration.
"The northern route was clearly by way of Bering Strait;
* * * Linguistically, no ultimate distinction can be drawn be-
tween the American Innuit and the American Indian. * * * j
shall assume, what is also assumed by Mr. Markham, that the orig-
inal progenitors of the Innuit were in a very primitive, low, and
barbarous condition. * * *
" I assume, then, that the larger part of North America may have
been peopled by way of Bering Strait. * * * j believe that this
^9 Kubl, Dr. Joseph, Die Anfiingo ties Menschengeschlechts und scin einheitlicher
Urspi-unj, pp. 315-16. Leipzig, 187G.
°° Dall, W. n.. Tribos of the extreme northwest. V. S. Geog. and Geol. Survey, i,
pp. 93-10.5. Washington, 1877.
HRDLICKA] ORIGIIf AND ANTIQUITY OF THE ESKIMO 337
emigration was vastly more ancient than Mr. Markham supposes, and
that it took place before the present characteristics of races and
tribes of North American savages were developed. '■' * *
"My own impression agrees with that of Doctor Kink that the
Innuit were once inhabitants of the interior of America; that they
were forced to the west and north by the pressure of tribes of In-
dians from the south ; that they spread into the Aleutian region and
northwest coast generally, and possibly simultaneously to the north;
that their journeying was originally tentative, and that they finally
settled in those regions which afforded them subsistence, perhaps
after passing through the greater portion of Arctic America, leaving
their traces as they went in many places unfit for permanent settle-
ment ; that after the more inviting regions were occupied, the pres-
sure from Indians and still unsatisfied tribes of their own stock, in-
duced still further emigration, and finally peopled Greenland and the
shores of northeastern Siberia ; but that these latter movements were,
on the whole, much more modern, and more local than the original
exodus, and took place after the race characteristics and language
were tolerably well matured. * * *
" I conclude that at present the Asiatic Innuit range fi-om Koliu-
chin Bay to the eastward and south to Anadyr Gulf. * * *
" To the reflux of the great wave of emigration, which no doubt
took place at a very early period, we may owe the numerous deserted
huts reported by all explorers on the north coasts of Asia, as far east
as the mouth of the Indigirka. At one time, I thought the migration
to Asia had taken place within a few centuries, but subsequent study
and reflection has convinced me that this could not have been the
case. No doubt successive parties crossed at different times, and some
of these may have been comparatively modern."
Rae, 1878 : "^ "All the Eskimos with whom I have communicated
on the subject, state that they originally came very long ago from the
west, or setting sun, and that in doing so they crossed a sea separating
the two great lands.
" That these people (the Eskimos) have been driven from their
own country in the northern parts of Asia by some unknown pressure
of circumstances, and obliged to extend themselves along the whole
northern coast line of America and Greenland, appears to be likely,
and that the route followed after ci'ossing Bering Strait was of neces-
sity along the coast'eastward, being hemmed in by hostile Indians on
the south, and driven forward bj^ pressure from the west * * *_
" Such were my opinions 12 years ago, and their correctness has
been rather confirmed than otherwise, by all that we have since
learned, * * * "
" Rae, John, Eskimo Migrations. Jour. Anthrop. Inst. Great Britain and Ireland, tii,
pp. 130-131. London, 1878.
338 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ann. 40
1887 : *"- " Professor Flower said that his investigation into the
physical characteristics of the Eskimos led him to agree entirely
with Doctor Rae's conclusions derived from other sources. He looked
upon the Eskimos as a branch of the North Asiatic Mongols (of
which the Japanese may be taken as a familiar example), who in
their wandering across the American continent in the eastward direc-
tion, isolated almost as perfectly as an island population would be,
hemmed in on one side by the eternal polar ice, and on the other by
hostile tribes of American Indians, with whom they rarely, if ever,
mingled, have gradually developed special modifications of the Mon-
golian type, which increase in intensity from west to east, and are
seen in their greatest perfection in the inhabitants of Green-
land. * * *
" Doctor Rae also thinks that the Eskimos came from across Bering
Strait from Asia. Their traditions and many other things point in
that direction, and they are in no way related to the ancient cave
men of Europe."
Dawson, 1880 : "' Eskimo : " On the eastern side of the continent
these poor people have always been separated bj' a marked line from
their Indian neighbors on the south, and have been regarded by them
with the most bitter hostility. On the west, however, they pass into
the Eastern Siberians, on the one hand, and into the West-coast In-
dians, on the other, both by language and physical characters. They
and the northern tribes at least of West-coast Indians, belong in all
probability to a wave of population spreading from Bering Strait."
Quatrefages et Hamy, 1882 : °* " Les Esquimaux ou Eskimos, qui se
nomment eux-memes Innuits, constituent dans la serie mongolique
im groupe exceptionnel, qui differe a maints egards de ceux qui
viennent de passer sous nos yeux, mais dont I'origine asiatique n'est
plus aujourd'hui contestee et dont les affinites occidentales frapjjent
de plus en plus les observateurs speciaux."
Brown, 1888 : *^ " It is only when we come to the region beginning
at Cape Shelagskii and extending to tke East Cape of Siberia that
we find any traces of them. This tract is now held by the coast
Tchukchi, but it was not always their home, for they expelled from
this dreary stretch the Onkilon or Eskimo race who took refuge in
or near less attractive quai'tei's between the East Cape and Anadvrskii
Bay."
"" Rae, John, Remarks on the Natives of British North America. Jour. Anthrop. Inst.
Great Britain and Ireland, m, p. 200. London, 1887.
"' Dawson, J. W., Fossil men and their modern rcpresentatires, pp. 48-49. Montreal,
1880.
■" Quatrefages, A. de, et Hamy, E. T., Crania ethnica. Les cranes des races humaines,
p. 437. Paris, 1882.
"^ Brown, Robert, The origin of the Eskimo. The Archaeological Review, i. No. 4, pp.
238-289. London, 1888.
HRDi.iOKA] ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF THE ESKIMO 339
Ratzel, 1897 : "'' " If we ask whence they came, Asia seems most
obvious, since between the American and Asiatic coasts of Bering
Straits, intercourse has always been ventured upon even in the rudest
skin-boats. * * *
'• Ethnographic indications also point predominantly to the
west. * * *
" But we liave an equal right to suppose a migration from America
into Asia."
Thalbitzer, 1914:" "I still believe (like Eink), that the common
Eskimo mother-group has at one time lived to the west at the Bering
Strait, coming originally from the coasts of Siberia."'
Fiirst and Hansen. 1915:''^ "We are to some extent acquainted
with the diffusion of the Eskimos over the earth, and know that they
could not liave come directly from Europe and that Greenland was
populated from the west, one may naturally conclude, as has often
been concluded before, that their descent is from the west, in other
words from Asia, though the time at which such an immigration took
place and the racial type which they then possessed must remain
still more hypothetical than immigration itself."
Mathiassen, 1927 : "" " We must therefore imagine that the Tliule
culture, with all its peculiar whaling culture, has originated some-
where in the western regions, in an Arctic area, where whales were
plentiful and wood abundant, and we are involuntarily led toward the
coasts of Alaska and East Siberia north of Bering Strait, the regions
to which we have time after time had to turn in order to find pai-allels
to types from the Central Eskimo finds. Tliere all the conditions
have been present for the originating of such a culture, and from
there it has spread eastward right to Greenland, seeking everywhere
to adapt itself to the local geographical conditions. And it can
hardly have been a culture wave alone; it must have been a migra-
tion. The similarities between east and west are in many directions
so detailed that it is difficult to explain them without assuming an
actual migration of people from the one place to the other."
Jochelson, 1928 : "° " In discussing tlie question of former Eskimo
occupation of the Siberian Arctic coast a very remote period of time
is not meant, so that in this sense the assumed recent Eskimo migra-
tions from Asia into America and vice versa do not interfere with the
general theory of the Asiatic origin of the American population."
"•" Ratzel, Friodrlch. The history of mankind, ii, pp. 107-108. London, 1897.
»■ Thalbitzor, W., The Ammassalik Eskimo. Meddolelscr cm Gr0nland, vol. xxxix, pt.
1, p. 717. Copenhagen, 1914.
'' Fur.st, Carl M., and Fr. C. C. Hansen, Crania Grocniandica, p. 228. Copenhagen,
1915.
"» Mathiassen, Therkel, Archaeology of the central Eskimos. Report of the Fifth
Thule Expedition 1921-1924, p. 184. Copenhagen. 1927.
""Jochelson, W., Peoples of Asiatic Russia. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., p. 60. New York,
1928.
340 ANTHROPOLOGICAL STXRVEY IN ALASKA Ibth. ann. 4g
AMERICAN
Pricliard, 1S47 : ''^ "A question has been raised, to -what department
of mankind the Esquimaux belong. Some think them a race allied
to the northern Asiatics, and even go so far as to connect them with
the Mongolians. Others, with greater probabilitj', consider them as
belonging to the American family. All the American writers eminent
for their researches in the giottology of the New World, among whom
I shall mention Mr. du Ponceau and Mr. Gallatin, are unanimous in
the opinion that the Esquimaux belong to the same great department
of nations as the Hunting Tribes of North America."
Kink, 1890 : '= " * * * kann es wohl keinem Zweifel unterworf en
sein, dass die Eskimos den sogenannten Nordwest-Indianern an der
Kiiste Alaskas und welter siklwiirts am niichsten stehen. Es diirfte
deshalb der Untersuchung werth sein, ob sie nicht audi wirklich als
das iiusserste nordliche Glied dieser Volkerstamme zu betrachten
waren. Man hat angenommcn, dass diese letzteren, dem Laufe der
Fliisse folgend, vom Binnenlande zur Kiiste gekommen sind. Sie
lernten dann, theilweise und um so mehr wohl, je weiter nach Norden
sich ihren Lebensunterhalt aus dem Meere zu verschaffen. Die
Eskimos endigten damit, sich ausschliesslich der Jagd auf dem Meere
zu widmen, und erlangten dadurch ihre merkwiirdige Fiihigkeit, alien
Hindernissen des arktischen Klimas Trotz bieten zu konnen.
Betrachten wir demnach, wie man vermeintlich noch jetzt die Spuren
der Veriinderungen beobachten kann, denen sie nach und nach unter-
worfen woi'den sind, indem sie sich, unserer Vermuthung zufolge,
nach Norden und Osten verbreiteten."
Eink, 1873 : '^ "As far as can now be judged, the Eskimo appear to
have been the last wave of an aboriginal American race, which has
spread over the continent from more genial regions, following prin-
cipally the rivers and watercourses, and continually yielding to the
pressure of the tribes behind them, until at last they have peopled
the seacoast. * *■ *
" The author explains some of the most common traditions from
Greenland as simply mythical narrations of events occurring in the
far northwest corner of America, thereby pointing to the great
probability of that district having been the original home of the
nation, in which they first assumed the peculiarities of their present
culture."
" Prichard, James Cowles, Researches into the physical history of mankind, vol. v,
p. 374. London, 1847.
"Rinlt, H., Die Verbreltung der iSskimo-Stiimme. Congrfts International des Am^ri-
canistes, 1SS8, 221-22. Berlin, 1S90.
" Rink, n.. On the descent of the Eskimo. M^m. Soc. Roy. d. Antiquaires du Nord ;
Journ. anthiop. Inst., ii, 1873, pp. 104, 100, 108.
iikdliCka] origin AND ANTIQUITY OF THE ESKIMO 341
Captain Piin also expressed his belief that " the Eskimo were pure
American aborigines, and not of Asiatic descent."
Kink, 1875 : '* " If we suppose the physical conditions and the
climate of the Eskimo regions not to have altered in any remarkable
way since they were first inhabited, their inhabitants of course must
originally have come from more southern latitudes, * * * ^^ j^p_
pears evident on many grounds that such a southern tribe has not been
a coast people migrating along the seashore, and turning into Eskimo
on passing beyond a certain latitude, but that they have more prob-
ably emerged from some interior count rj*, following the river banks
toward the shores of the polar sea, having reached which they be-
came a coast people, and, moreover, a polar-coast jDeople. The Eskimo
most evidently rej^resenting the jjolar-coast people of North America,
the first question which arises seems to be whether their development
can be conjectured with any probability to have taken place in that
part of the world. Other geographical conditions appear greatly to
favor such a supposition * * *. The rivers taking their course to
the sea between Alaska and the Coppermine Kiver, seem well adapted
to lead such a migrating people onward to the polar sea. * * *
'" The probable identity of the ' inlanders ' with the Indians has al-
ready been remarked on. When the new coast people began to spread
along the Arctic shores, some bands of them may very probably have
crossed Bering Strait and settled on the opposite shore, which is
perhaps identical with the fabulous country of Akilinek. On the
other hand, there is very little ^Jrobability that a people can have
moved from interior Asia to settle on its polar seashore, at the same
time turning Eskimo, and afterwards almost wholly emigrated to
America.
" On comparing the Eskimo with the neighboring nations, their
physical complexion certainly seems to point at an Asiatic origin ;
but, as far as we know, the latest investigations have also shown a
transitional link to exist between the Eskimo and the other American
nations, which would sufficiently indicate the possibility of a common
origin from the same continent."
Rink, 1875 : '° " The author, who has traveled and resided in Green-
land for 20 years, and has studied the native traditions, of which
he has preserved a collection, considers the Eskimo as deserving
particular attention in regard to the question how America has been
originally peopled. He desires to draw the attention of ethnologists
to the necessity of explaining, by means of the mysterious early
" Rink, H.. Tales and traditions of the Eskimo, pp. 70, 71, 72, 73. Edinburgh and
London. 1875.
" Rink, n., On the descent of the Eskimo. In a Selection of Papers on Arctic Geog-
raphy and Ethnology, Koy. Geog. Soc, pp 230, 232. London, 1875.
342 ANTHEOPOLOGICAL STJEVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ANN. 46
history of the Eskimo, the apparently abrupt step by which these
people have been changed from probably inland or riverside in-
habitants into a decidedly littoral people, depending entirely on the
products of the Arctic Sea; and he arrives at the conclusion that,
although the question must still remain doubtful, and dependent
chiefly on further investigations into the traditions of the natives
occupying adjacent countries, yet, as far as can now be judged, the
Eskimo appear to have been the last wave of an aboriginal American
race, which has spread over the continent from more genial regions,
following principally the rivers and watercourses, and continually
yielding to the pressure of the tribes behind them, until at last they
have peopled the seacoast. * * *
"When we consider the existing intercourse between the inhabi-
tants on both sides of Bering Strait, we find many circumstances to
justify the conclusion that those traditions of the Greenland Eskimo
refer to the origin of the Eskimo sledge dog from the training of
the Arctic wolf, to the first journeys upon tlie frozen sea, and to
intercourse between the aboriginal Eskimo and the Asiatic coast."
Eink, 1886:"" " Gronland kann ja nur von Westen her seine esld-
moische Bevolkerung empfangen haben. Dasselbe lasst sich mit
Wahrscheinlichkeit auch von den niichsten Nachbarliindern jenseits
der Davisstrasse annehmen, und wenn wir diese Vermutung weiter
erstrecken, gelangen wir zum Alaskaterritorium als der wahrschein-
lichen Heimat der jetzt so weit zertreuten arktischen Volkes.
Zunachst findet diese Annahme eine Bestiitigung darin, dass die
Eskimos hier nicht auf die Kiiste beschrankt, sondern auch liings der
Fliisse ins Binnenland verbreitet sind, nur dass der ungeheure Fisch-
reichtum dieser Fliisse es moglich gemacht haben kann, dass hier
urspriinglich eine noch viel grossere Bevolkerung, als jetzt, sich
sammelte, welche durch Auswanderung das notwendige Kontingent
zur Entstehung der auf die Meereskiiste beschriinkten Stiimme
geliefert haben kann."
Wilson, 1876 : " " Some analogies confirm the ]^x-obability of a por-
tion of the North American stock having entered the continent from
Asia by Bering Strait or the Aleutian Islands; and more probably
by the latter than the former. * * *
" In this direction, then, a North American germ of population
may have entered the continent from Asia, diffused itself over the
Northwest, and ultimately reached the valleys of the Mississippi, and
penetrated to southern latitudes by a route to the east of the Rocky
Mountains. Many centuries may have intervened between the first
™ Rink, H., Die Ostgronlander in ilirem Vprhiiltnissc? zu den tbrigen EslsimostSmmeB.
Deutscli Geographische Blatter, IX, p. 229. Bremen, 188C.
•' Wilson, Daniel, Prehistoric man, pp. 343-352. London, 1S7G.
HKDLICKA] ORIGIN^ AND ANTIQUITY OF THE ESKIMO 343
immigration and its coming in contact with races of the southern
continent ; and philological and other evidence indicates that if such
a northwestern immigration be really demonstrable, it is one of very
ancient date. But so far as I have been able to study the evidence,
much of that hitherto adduced appears to point the other
way. * * *
" With Asiatic Esquimaux thus distributed along the coast adjacent
to the dividing sea ; and the islands of the whole Aleutian group in
the occupation of the same remarkable stock common to both hemi-
spheres: The only clearly recognizable indications are those of a
current of migration setting toward the continent of Asia, the full
influence of which may prove to have been more comprehensive than
has hitherto been imagined possible. * * * "'
Grote. 1877:"^ Regards the Eskimo as the original inhabitants of
North America and believes they extended down to 50° in the eastern
and 60° in the western part of the continent.
Krause, 1883 :*" " Ueberblickt man nun die gegenwartige Verbrei-
tung der Eskimos in Asien. so wird man der Ansicht von Dall und
Nordenskiold beistimmen, dass die asiatischen Eskimo aus Amerika
eingewandert sind und nicht. wio Steller. Wrungell. und andere ver-
mutheten, zuriickgebliebene Reste einer ehemals zahlreicheren, nach
Amerika hiniibergezogenen Bevolkerung. Immerhin wiirde durch
die Annahme eines amerilcanischen Ursprunges der jetzigen Eskimo-
be viilkerung die Moglichkeit friiherer Wanderungen in entgegenge-
setzter Richtung nicht ausgeschlossen sein, nur giebt die gegenwar-
tige Verbreitung keinen Anhalt fiir eine solche, und historische Be-
weise fahlen."
Raj^, 1885 : *^ " Of their origin and descent we could get no trace,
there being no record of events kept among them. * * *
" That they have followed the receding line of ice, which at one
time capped the northern part of this continent, along the easiest
lines of travel is shown in the general distribution of a similar peo-
ple, speaking a similar tongue, from Greenland to Bering Strait ; in
so doing they followed the easiest natural lines of travel along the
watercourses and the seashore, and the distribution of the race to-
day marks the routes traveled. The seashore led them along the
Labrador and Greenland coasts; Hudson Bay and its tributary
waters carried its quota towards Boothia Land: helped by Back's
"Grote, A. R., Buff. Daily Courier, Jan. 7, 1877 (q. by. R. Virchow, Z. Ethnol., Verh.,
IX, 1877, p. 69).
*° Krausf, Aurcl, Die Bevollterungsverhaltnisse der Tschuktschenhalbinsel. Verb. Berl.
GPS. Anthrop., etc., in Z. Ethn., XV. pp. 226-27. 1883.
«' Ray, r. 11., Ethnographic Sketch of the Natives. Report of the International Polar
Expedition to Point Barrow, Alaska, pt. 2, p. 37. Washington, 1885.
344 ANTHROPOLOGICAL STJEVBY IN" ALASKA [eth ann. 46
Great Fish River, the Mackenzie carried them to the northwestern
coast, and down the Yukon they came to people the shores of Norton
Sound and along the coast to Cape Prince of Wales. They occupied
some of the coast to the south of the mouth of the Yukon, and a few
drifted across Bering Strait on the ice, and their natural traits are
still in marked contrast with their neighbors, the Chuckchee. They
use dogs instead of deer, the natives of North America having never
domesticated the reindeer, take their living from the sea, and speak a
different tongue. Had the migration come from Asia it does not
stand to reason that they would have abandoned tlie deer upon
crossing the straits."
Keane, 1886 : ^- " Dr. H. Eink, in the current number of the
Deutsche Geographische Blatter (Bermen, 1886) * * * n^akes
it .sufficiently evident that their primeval home must be placed in
the extreme northwest, on the Alaskan shores of the Bering Sea
* * * the Aleutian Islanders, who are treated by Doctor Rinlv as a
branch of the Eskimo family, but whose language diverges pro-
foundly from, or rather shows no perceptible affinity at all to, the
Eskimo. The old question respecting tlie ethnical affinities of the
Aleutians is thus again raised, but not further discussed by our
author. To say that they must be regarded as ' ein abnormer
Seitenzweig,' merely avoids the difficulty, while jDcrhaps obscuring
or misstating the true relations altogether. For these islanders
should possibly be regarded, not ' as abnormal offshoot,' but as the
original stock from which the Eskimos themselves have diverged.
* * * Doctor Rink himself advances some solid reasons for bring-
ing the Eskimo, not from Asia at all, or at least not in the first
instance, but from the interior of the North American continent. He
holds, in fact, with some other ethnologists, that they were originally
inlanders, who, under pressure from the American Indians, gradu-
ally advanced along the course of the Yukon, Mackenzie, and other
great rivers, to their present homes on the Bering Sea, and Frozen
Ocean."
No individual or decided standpoint on the question is taken in
the author's Man, Past and Present, 1920 edition.
Brown, 1881 : ^^ " The Eskimo are therefore an essentially American
people, with a meridional range greater than that of any other
race. * * *
" It is also clear that this migration has always been from west to
east, as also has been that of the Indian tribes; * * *
" Did these hyperboreans come from Asia or are they evolutions,
differentiations, as it were, of some of the other American races?
«= Keane, A. H., The Eskimo. Nature, xxxv, pp. 309, 310. London, New York, 1886-87.
'2 Brown, Robert, Tbe Origin of the Eskimo. The Archaeological Review, i. No. 4, pp.
240-250. London, 1888.
HRDLIfKA] OlilGIN' AND ANTIQUITY OF THE ESKIMO 345
That all of the American 2:)eople.s came originally from Asia, is, I
think, an hypothesis for which a great deal might be said. Unless
tliey originated there or were autochthonic, an idea which may at
once be dismissed ; they could scarcely have come from anywhere else,
* * * but the central question is whether tlie Eskimo are of a
later date than the Indians or are really Indians compelled to live
under less favorable conditions than the rest of their kinsfolk. The
latter will, I think, be found to be the most reasonable view to
adopt. * * *
" Doctor Eink seems not far from the truth when he indicates
the rivers of Central Arctic America as the region from whence the
Eskimo spread northward. * *
" It is not at all improbable that the original progenitors of the
race may have been a few isolated families, members of some small
Indian tribe, or the decaying remnants of a larger one. Little by
little they were expelled from their hunting and fishing grounds on
the original river bank until, finding no place amid the stronger
tribes, they settled in a region where they were left to them-
selves. * * *
" It may, however, be taken as proved that the Eskimo are in no
respect and never were a European people; that they are not and
never were an Asiatic one, except to the small extent already de-
scribed; that the handful of peojjle settled on the Siberian shore
migrated from America, and that it is very probable the Eskimo
came from the interior of Arctic America, Alaska more likely than
from any other part of the world."
Virchow, 1877 : ^* " Ich mochte namentlich darauf aufmerksam
machen, dass diejenigen, welche den nachsten Ankniipfungspunkt
fiir die Urbevolkerung Amerika's bei den Eskimo's suchen, welche
ferner die Sprache und die Formen der Eskimo's nach Asien hinein
verfolgen, leicht ein petitio principii machen diirften, insofern als
es wohl sein konnte, dass sie ein spiiteres Phiinomen fiir ein friiheres
halten. Warum soUte nicht die Einwanderung der Eskimo's von
Asien erst erfolgt sein, nachdem liingst andere Theile des Continents
ihre Bewohner erhalten hatten? "
1878 : ^'' " Nun ist es sehr bemerkenswerth, dass gegeniiber dieser
physiognomischen Aehnlichkeit der Eskimos und der Mongolen eine
absolute Difl'erenze Zwischen ihncn in Bezug auf die Schiidelkapsel
existirt" (examined six living Greenland Eskimos).
^ Virchow, R., AntUropolosrie Amerika's. Verh. Berl. Ges. Anthr., etc.. .Jahrg. 1877
(with Z. Ethnol.. 1877, ixi, pp. 154-0o.
^' Eskimos. Verh. Berl. Ges. Anthr., etc., 1878, pp. 185-189 (with Z. Ethnol.,
1878, X), p. 18(i.
88253°— 30 23
346 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SUKVEY IN ALASKA [eth.ann.46
1885 ■.^'^ " Verbimlen wir dieses mit dem Umstande, dass die Sagen
der Ungava-Eskimos stets nach Norden iiber die Hudson-Strasse
verlegt werden, dass man im Baffin-Lande stets iiber die Fury- und
Hecla-Strasse fort nach Siiden als dem Schauplatz alter Sagen
hinweist, und dass die westlichen Eskimos ebenso den Osten als das
Land ihrer sagenhaften Helden und Stamme betraehten, so gewinnt
die Vermuthung an Wahrseheinlichkeit, dass im Westen des Hudson-
Bay-Gebietes die Heimath der weitverbreiteten Stamme zu suchen
ist."
Chamberlain, 1889 : *' " In a paper read before the Institute last
year (Proc. Can. Inst., 3d. sen. Vol. V., Fasc. i., October, 1887, p. 70),
I advanced the view that instead of the Eskimo being derived from
the Mongolians of northeastern Asia, the latter are on the contrary
descended from the E.skimo, or their ancestors, who have from time
immemorial inhabited the continent of America."
Boas, 1901 : *** "AH these data seem to me to prove conclusively that
the culture of the Alaskan Eskimo is very greatly influenced by that
of the Indians of the North Pacific coast and by the Athapascan
tribes of the interior. This is in accord with the observation that
their physical type is not so pronounced as the eastern Eskimo type.
1 believe, therefore, that H. Rink's opinion of an Alaskan origin of
the Eskimo is not very probable. If pure type and culture may be
considered as significant, I should say that the Eskimo west and
north of Hudson Bay have retained their ancient characteristics more
than any others. If their original home was in Alaska, we must add
the hypothesis that their dispersion began before contact with the
Indians. If their home was east of the Mackenzie, the gradual dis-
persion and ensuing contact with other tribes would account for all
the observed phenomena. * * * Qn the whole, the relations of
North Pacific and North Asiatic cultures are such that it seems
plausible to my mind that the Alaskan Eskimo are, comparatively
speaking, recent intruders, and that they at one time interrupted an
earlier cultural connection between the two continents."
To which he adds in the second part of this work,*** speaking of the
Eskimo taboos: "It may perhaps be venturesome to claim that the
marked development of these customs suggests a time when the Es-
kimo tribes were inland people who went down to the sea and gradu-
ally adopted maritime pursuits, which, however, were kept entirely
apart from their inland life, although in a way this seems an attrac-
tive hypothesis.
™Virchow, R., Eskimos. Verb. Berl. Ges. Anthr., etc., 188.". p. ifi.'i (with Z. Ethnol.,
1883, XVII).
" rhamberlain, A. F., The Eskimo R.aoo and LaDguage. Proc. Can. Inst., vi, p. 2S1.
Toronto. 1889.
^ Boas, F., Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., xv, pp.
369-370. 1907.
""Ibid., XV, pt. 2, pp. 569-570. 1907.
HRDLicKA] ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF THE ESKIMO 347
Boas, 1910 : "" " There is little doubt that the Eskimos, whose life
as sea huntei-s has left a deep impression upon all of their doings,
must probably be classed with the same group of peoples. The
much-discussed theory of the Asiatic origin of the Eskimos must be
entirely abandoned. The investigations of the Je.sup North Pacific
Exijedition, which it was my privilege to conduct, seem to show that
the Eskimos must be considered as, comparatively speaking, new
arrivals in Alaska, which they reached coming from the east."
Clark Wissler, 1917.^' Page 363: "The New World received a
detachment of early Mongoloid peoples at a time when the main
body had barely developed stone polishing."
Pages 361-362 : " Our review of New World .somatic characters
revealed the essential unity of the Indian population. It is also •
clear that there are affinities with the Mongoloid peoples of Asia.
Hence, we are justified in assuming a common ancestral group for
the whole Mongoloid-Ked stream of humanity. We have already
outlined the reasons for assuming the pristine home of this group to
be in Asia."
Page 335 : " For example, the Eskimos, whose first appearance in
the New World must have been in Alaska, spread only along the
Arctic coast belt to its ultimate limits."
1918^-. Page 161 : " The most acceptable theory of Eskimo origin
is that they expanded from a parent group in the Arctic Achipelago."
1922.''= Pages 368, 396, 398: Identical in every word again with
that of 1917.
EUROPEAN
Dawkins, 1866 : ^* " The sum of the evidence proves that man, in a
hunter state, lived in the south of Gaul on reindeer, musk sheep,
horses, oxen, and the like, at a time when the climate was similar to
that which those animals now inhabit. To what race did he belong?
In solving this the zoological evidence is of great importance. The
reindeer and musk sheep now inhabit the northern part of the
American Continent and are the pi'incipal land animals that supply
the Esquimaux with food. The latter of these has departed from
the Asiatic Continent, leaving remains behind to prove that it shared
the higher northern latitudes of Asia with the reindeer, and this
™ Boas, FraDz, Ethnological Problems in Canada. Jour. Roy. Anthrop. Inst. Great
Britain and Ireland, XL, p. 534. London, 1910.
^ Wisslor, Clark, The American Indian. New York, 1917.
^- Archaeology of the Polar Eskimo. Anthrop. Papers, Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.,
XXII, pt. 3, p. IGl. New York, 1918.
»= The American Indian. New York, 1022.
^Dawkins, Boyd, In a Review of Lartet and Christy's " Cavernes du Pt^rigord " (1864),
in the Saturday Review, xxii, p. 713, 1866. [This review is not signed but is attributed
to B. D.]
348 ANTHROPOLOGICAL STJKVEY IN ALASKA [bth. ann. 46
latter has retreated farther and farther north during the historical
period. May not the race that lived on these two animals in southern
Gaul have shared also in their northern retreat, and may it not be
living in company with them still? The truth of such a hypoth-
esis as this is found by an appeal to the weapons, implements, and
habits of life of the Esquimaux. The fowling spear, the harpoon,
the scrapers, the marrow spoons are the same in the ice huts of Mel-
ville Sound as in the ancient dwellings of southern Gaul. In both
there is the same absence of pottery; in both bones are crushed in the
same way for the sake of the mari-ow, and accumulate in vast quanti-
ties. Tlie very fact of human remains being found among the relics
of the feast is exislained by an appeal to what Captain Parry ob-
served in the island of Igloolik. Among the vast quantities of bones
of walruses and seals, and skulls of dogs and bears found in the Esqui-
maux camp, were numbers of liunum skulls lying about among the
rest, which the natives tumbled into the collecting bags of the officers
without the least remorse. A similar carelessness for the dead was
also observed by Sir J. Ross and Captain Lyon. This presence, then,
of human remains in the south of Gaul is another link binding the
ancient people then living there to the Esquimaux. Their small size
also is additional evidence.
'' The only inference that can be drawn from these premises is
that the people in question were decidedly Esquimaux, related to
them precisely in the same way as the reindeer and musk sheep of
those days were to those now living in the high North American
latitudes. The sole point of difference is the possession of the dog
by the latter people, but in the vast lapse of time between the date
of their sojourn in Europe and the present day the dog might very
well have been adopted from some other superior race, or even re-
duced under the rule of man from some wild progenitor. By this
discovery a new j^eople is added to those which formerly dwelt in
Europe. The severity of the climate in southern Gaul is proved by
the northern animals above mentioned. As it became warmer musk
sheep, reindeer, and Esquimaux would retreat farther and farther
north until they found a resting place on the American shore of the
great Arctic Sea. Possibly in the case of the Esquimaux the inuni-
gration of other and better-armed tribes might be a means of acceler-
ating this movement."
Hamy, 1870:^" "II nous parait, comme a MM. de Quatref ages, Car-
ter-Blake, Le Hon, etc., que les earacteres anatomiques des races de
Furfooz et de Cro-Magnon doivent leur faire prendre place dans le
groupe hyperboreen."
°= Hamy, E. T,, Tr^cis <Je paK'ontologie humaine. p. 355. Taris, 1870.
HKDi.irKA] OKIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF THE ESKIMO 349
Dawkins, 1874 ^" : In 1866. Boyd Dawkins, on the basis of the re-
semblances between the implements of the Eskimo and those of the
later prehistoric man of Europe, advances the idea that the Eskimo
were close kin to the palaeolithic man of Europe, before the scientific
forum. In his Cave Hunting he says: ''Palaeolithic man appeared
in Europe with the arctic mammalia, lived in Europe along with
them, and disappeared with them. And since his implements are of
the same kind as those of the Eskimos, it may reasonably be con-
cluded that he is represented at the present time by the Eskimos, for
it is most improljable that the convergence of the ethnological and
zoological evidence should be an accident."
1880 : "' '• The probable identity of the cave men with the Eskimos
is considerably strengthened by a consideration of some of the ani-
mrals found in the caves. * * *
"All these points of connection between the cave men and the
Eskimos can, in my opinion, be explained only on the hypothesis
that they belong to the same race * * *."
The cave man : " From the evidence brought forward in this chap-
ter, there is reason to believe that he is represented at the present
time by the Eskimos."'
Mortillet, 1889:"' " Les Groenlandais, au point de vue paleoeth-
nologique, presentent un tres grand interet. lis paraissent se relier
tres intimement aux hommes qui habitaient TEurope moyenne pend-
ant I'epoque de la Madeleine. lis seraient les descendants directs des
Magdaleniens. lis auraient successivement emigre vers le pole, avea
I'animal caracteristique de cette epoque, le renne. Habitues aux
froids les plus rigoureux de I'epoque magdalenienne, ils se sont re-
tires dans les regions froides du Nord. * * *
" Comme on le voit, il y a la plus grande ressemblance, tant sous
le rapport physique et moral que sous le rapport artistique et indus-
triel entre les hommes de la Madeleine et les Groenlandais. Cette
ressemblance est telle que nous pouvons en conclure que les seconds
sont les descendants des premiers."
Testut, 1889 : "° " Parmi les races actuelles, celle qui me parait
presenter la plus grande analogic avec I'homme de Chancelade est
celle des Esquimaux qui vivent encore a I'etat sauvage dans leg glaces
de I'Amerique septentrionale. lis ont, en effet, le meme crane que
notre troglodyte quaternaire ; leur face est constituee suivant le meme
type ; ils ont, a pen de chose pres, la meme taille, le meme indice Pala-
is Dawkins, Boyd, Cave Hunting, p. 359. London, 1874.
" Dawkins, Boyd, Early Man in Britain, pp. 240, 241, 24.5. London, ISSO.
" Mortillet, G. de, Les Groenlandais descendants des Magdaleniens. Bulletins de la
Soci^te d'Anthropologle, VI, pp. 86S-870. Paris, 1883.
"■' Testut, L., Reeherches anthropologique.s sur le .squelette quaternaire de Chancelade
(Dordogne). Bull. .Snc. d'anthrop., viii, pp. 243-244. Lyon, Paris. 1889.
350 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY LST ALASKA [ETH. ANN. M
tin, le meme indice nasal, le meme indice orbitaire, le meme degre de
torsion de lliumerus, etc. * * *
" La decoiiverte de Chancelade. en mettant en himiere une analogic
fraj^pante entie le squelette de notre troglodyte perigourdin et celui
des Esquimaux actuels, apporte a cette opinion aussi seduisante que
naturelle, Tappui de Tanthropologie anatomique qui, dans I'espece,
a une importance capitale. Elle lui est de tous points favorable et
eleve a la hauteur d'une verite probable, je n'ose dire d'une verite
demontree, ce qui n'etait encore qu'une simple hypothese."
Herve, 1893 : ' " * * * * par leurs usages et par leurs moeurs,
aussi bien que par leur materiel industriel et artistique, les Hyper-
boreens actuels (Tchouktches et Eskimaux) sont extremement
voisins des Troglodytes magdaleniens de I'Europe occidentale ; a
ce point que Hamy a pu dire " qu'ils contiuuent de nos jours, dan Ifes
regions circumpolaires, Fage du renne de France, de Belgique, de
Suisse, avec ses caracteristiques zoologiques, ethnographiques, etc'
(op. cit., 366). 'Nous avons vu, d'autre jjart, que les plus purs
d'entre eux ne different pas anatomiquement des Magdaleniens.
C'est done au rameau hyperboreen que nous sommes amenes a ratta-
cher, au jDoint de vue ethnique, les demieres joopulations de I'Europe
quaternaire.' "
Boule, 1913 : - " On sait d'ailleurs, depuis les travaux de Testut sur
THomme de Chancelade, que les relations des Esquimaux sont avec
d'autres HommeS fossiles de nos pays, mais d'un age geologique plus
recent."
Sollas, 1924 : ^ The Magdalenians are represented " in part, by the
Eskimo on the frozen margin of the North American Continent and
as well, perhaps, by the Red Indians. * * *" Due to pressure
of stronger peoples, the ancestors of the Eskimo were present to the
north ; '• but as there was no room for expansion in that direction, it
was diverted toward the only egress possible, and an outflow took
place into America over Bering Strait or the Aleutian Islands. The
primitive Eskimo, already accustomed to a boreal life, extended
along the coast."
1927 : "* " The assemblage of characters presented on the one hand
by the Chancelade skull, and on the other by the Eskimo, are in very
remarkable agreement, and that the onus of discovering a similar
assemblage, but possessed by some other race, rests with those who
refuse to accept what seems to me a very obvious conclusion. * * *
^ Hervfi, Georges, La Race des Troglodytes Magdaleniens. Rev. mens, de I'Ecole
d'anthrop., ni, p. 188. Paris, 1893.
'' Boule, Marcellin, L'lloiume fo-ssilo de la Chapelle-aux-Saints, pp. 228. Paris, lOl.'j.
^ Sollas. W. J., Ancient hunters and their modern representaUres, pp. 500, 592. New
York, 1924.
< Sollas, W. J., The Chancelade skull. J. Roy, Anthrop. Inst., lvii, pp. 119, 121. London.
1927.
i£nDH(-KA] ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF THE ESKIMO 351
" Our only reason for any feelintj of surprise is, not that Chan-
celade man should prove a close relation of the Eskimo, but that
so far he is the only fossil example of his kind of which we have any
certain knowledge."
OPPOSED TO EUEOPEAN
Rae, 1887 : ^ " The typical Eskimo is one of the most specialized
of the human race, as far as cranial and facial characters are con-
cerned, and such scanty remains as have yet been discovered of the
prehistoric inhabitants of Europe present no structural affinities witli
him."
Laloy, 1898 : " " Cette theorie est absolument contredite par les
faits." (That is, the theory of the identity of the Eskimo with the
European upper palaeolithic man.)
Dechelette, 1908 : ' " C'est en vain qu'on a note certains traits d'anal-
ogie de I'art et de I'industrie * * * telles analogies s'expliquent
aisement par la parite des conditions de la vie materielle."
Burkitt, 1921 : ^ "Again the Magdalenians have been correlated with
the Eskimos, who inhabit to-day the icebound coastal lands to the
north of the New World, and also the similar lands, on the other side
of the straits, in the northeast corner of Asia. But the vast differ-
ence in place and in time would make any exact correlation very
doubtful."
MacCurdy, 1924 : ^ "If a Magdalenian type exists, it is probably
best represented by the skeleton from Raymonden at Chancelade
(Dordogne). One must not lose sight of the fact that the osteologic
record of fossil man is even yet so fragmentary that there is grave
danger of mistaking individual characters for those on which vari-
eties or species should be based."
Keith, 1925 : " " In the Chancelade man we are dealing with a mem-
ber of a racial stock of a true European kind."
MISCELIoANEOtTS AND INDEFINITE
Gallatin, 1836 : ^^ " Whatever may have been the origin of the Es-
kimo, it would seem probable that the small tribe of the present
" Rae, Dr. John, Remarlcs on the natives of British North America. J. Roy. Anthrop.
Inst. Great Britain and Ireland, xvi, pp. 200-201. London, 1887.
"Laloy, L'Antlir., ix, p. 586. 1898.
' IX'chelette, J.. Manuel crArcheoloKic prthistorique, etc., pp. 312. Paris, 1908.
» Burkitt, il. C, Prehistory, p. 307. London, 1921.
' MacCurdy, G. G.. Human Origins, v. i, pp. 406-407. New York and London, 1924.
i» Keith, Arthur, The Antiquity of Man, p. 86. Loudon, 1925.
" Gallatin, Albert, A Synopsis of the Indian Tribes of North America. Archaeologia
Americana, II, pp. 13, 14. Cambridge, 1836.
352 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SLTEVEY IN ALASKA [etii. an.n. 46
sedentary Tchuktchi on the eastern extremity of Asia is a colony of
western American Eskimo. The language does not extend in Asia
beyond that tribe. That of their immediate neighbors, the " Rein-
deer," or "Wandering Tchuktchi," is totally different and belongs
to the Kouriak family.
" There does not seem to be any solid foundation for the opinion
of those who would ascribe to the Eskimaux an origin different from
that of the other Indians of North America. The color and features
are essentially the same; and the differences which may exist, par-
ticularly that in stature, may be easily accounted for by the rigor
of the climate and partly, perhaps, by the nature of their food. The
entire similarity of the structure and grammatical forms of their
language with those of various Indian tribes, however different in
their vocabularies, which will hereafter be adverted to, affords an
almost conclusive proof of their belonging to the same family of
mankind."
Richardson, 1852:'= "The origin of the Eskimos has been much
discussed as being the pivot on which the inquiry into the original
peopling of America has been made to turn. The question has been
fairly and ably stated by Doctor Latham in his recent work On
the Varieties of Man, to which I must refer the reader ; and I shall
merely remark that the Eskimos differ more in physical aspect from
their nearest neighbors than the red races do from one another. The
lineaments have a decided resemblance to the Tartar or Chinese coun-
tenance. On the other hand, their language is admitted by phi-
lologists to be similar to the other North American tongues in its
grammatical structure ; so that, as Doctor Latham has forcibly stated,
the dissociation of the Eskimos from their neighboring nations on
account of their physical dissimilarity is met by an argument for
their mutual affinity, deduced from philological coincidences."
Meigs, 1857 : ^^ "A connected series of facts and arguments which
seem to indicate that the Eskimo are an exceedingly ancient people,
whose dawn was probably ushered in b}^ a temperate climate, but
whose dissolution now approaches, amidst eternal ice and snow ; that
the early migrations of these people have been from the north south-
wards, from the islands of the Polar Sea to the continent and not
from the mainland to the islands ; and that the present geographical
area of the Eskimo may be regarded as a primary center of liuman
distribution for the entire polar zone."
" Richardson, Sir John, Orijnn of the Esltimos. The Edinburgh New Philosophical
Journal, LII, p. 323. Edinburfih, 1S52.
" Meigs, J. Aitkcn, The cranial characteristics of the races of men. In Indigenous
Races of the Earth, by Nott, J. C, and Gliddon, George R., Philadelphia, p. 2G6. London,
1857.
HRDLItKA] ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF THE ESKIMO 353
Abbott, 1876 : ^* " It is fair to presume that the first liuman beings
that dwelt along tlie shores of the Delaware were really the same
people as the jjresent inhabitants of Arctic America."
Grote, 1875 : ^° Basing himself on certain biological reasonings, the
author concludes " that the Eskimos are the existing rejiresentatives
of the man of the American glacial epoch, just as the White Mountain
butterfly {Oeneis semidea) is the living representative of a colony of
the genus planted on the retiring of tlie ice from the valley of the
White Mountains."
In a later communication ^^ the author expresses the opinion that
the peopling of America " was effected during the Tertiary ; that
the ice modified races of Pliocene man, existing in the north of Asia
and America, forced them southward, and then drew them back to
the locality where they had undergone their original modifica-
tion. * * *
'■ During the process, then, which resulted in the race modification
of the Eskimos, their original numbers must have been decreased
by the slowly but ever increasing cold of the northern regions, until
experience and physical adaptation combined brought them to a
state of comparative stability as a race."
Baron Nordenskiold ^^ thought that the Eskimo might probably
be the true " autochthones " of the polar regions, i. e., that they had
inhabited the same jjrevious to the glacial age, at a period when a
climate prevailed here equal to that of northern Itaiy at present, as
proved by the fossils found at Spitzbergen and Greenland. As it
might be assumed that man had existed even during the Tertiary
period, there was a great deal in favor of the assumption that he had
lived in those jDarts which were most favorable to his existence. The
question was one of the highest importance, as, if it could be proved
that the Eskimo descended from a race which inhabited the polar
regions in the very earliest times, we should be obliged to assume
that there was a northern (polar) as well as an Asiatic cradle of the
human race, which would open up new fields of research, both to the
philologist and the ethnologist, and probably remnants of the culture
and language of the original race might be traced in the present polar
inhabitants of both Europe and Asia.
"Abbott, C. C, Traces of American Autochthon. Ain. Nat., p. 329. June, 1876.
15 Grote, A. R., Effect of the Glacial Epoch Upon the Distribution of Insects in North.
America. Proc. Am. Ass. Adv. Sci., Detroit meeting, 1875, B. Natural History, p. 225.
'« Grote. A. R., On the Peopling of America. Bull. Buffalo Soc. Nat. Sc, ill, p. 181-185,
1877.
" Eskimo. Lecture before the Georgr. Soc. of Stockholm, Dee. 19, 1884 ; abstract in
Proc. Roy. Georgr. Soc, vn. No. 6, p. 370-371. London, 1885.
354 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SITEVEY IN ALASKA [eth. ANN. 46
Keane, 1886: " " The Aleutian Islanders, who are treated by Doc-
tor Eink as a branch of the Eskimo family, but whose language
diverges profoundly from, or rather shows no perceptible affinity
at all to, the Eskimo. The old question respecting the ethnical
affinities of the Aleutians is thus again raised, but not further dis-
cussed by our author. To say that they must be regarded as ' ein
abnormer Seitenzweig,' merel}' avoids the difficulty, while perhaps
obscuring or misstating the true relations altogether. For these
islanders should possibly be regarded, not as ' an abnormal offshoot,'
but as the original stock from which the Eskimo themselves have
diverged."
Quatref ages, 1887 : ^° From migi-ations of Tertiary man : Men origi-
nated in Tertiary in nortliern Asia : spread from here to Europe and
over Asia ; " D'autres aussi gagnerent peut-etre I'Amerique et ont
pu etre les ancetres directs des Esquimaux, . . . Sans meme
supposer I'existence passee de la continuite des deux continents, les
hommes tertiaires ont bien pu faire ce que font les riverains actuels
du detroit de Behring, qui vont chaque jour d'Asie en Amerique et
reciproquement." . . .
" Evidemment la race esquimale est americaine. Au Groenland,
au Labrador, dont personne ne lui a dispute les solitudes glacees,
elle a conserve sa purete. Elle est encore restee pure quand elle a
rencontre, les Peaux-Eouges proprement dits, parce que ceux-ci lui
ont fait une guerre d'extermination qui ne respectait ni les femmes
ni les enfants. Mais, dans le nord-ouest americain, elle s'est trouvee
en rapport avec des populations d'un caractere plus doux et des
croisements ont eu lieu. Or, pai-mi ces populations, il s'en trouve
de brachycephales. Tels sont en particulier certaines tribus, con-
fondues a tort sous un meme nom avec les vrais Koluches . . .
Ces tribus sont de race jaune et leur crane ressemble si bien a celui
des Toungouses que M. Hamy les a rattachees directement a cette
famille mongole. Les Esquimaux se sont croises avec elles; et ainsi
ont pris naissance ces tribus, dont I'origine metisse est attestee par
le melange ou la fusion des caracteres linguistiques aussi bien qu'
anatomiques."
N'ansen, 1893 : -" " So much alone can we declare with any assur-
ance, that the Eskimos dwelt in comparatively recent times on the
coasts around Bering Strait and Bering Sea — probably on the
" Keane, A. H., The Eskimo : a commentary. Nature, xxxv. p. 309. London, New
York, 1886-18S7.
1° Quatrefages. A de, Histoire Ck-nf rale des Races Humalne.s, introduction I'Etude des
Races Humaines. pp. 136, 435. Paris, 1887.
=»Nansen, Fridtjof, Eskimo Life, pp. 6, 8. London, 1893. (Translated by WUliam
Archer.)
URDi.i.'KA] OEIGIX AND ANTIQUITY OF THE ESKIMO 355
American side — arid have thence, stage by stage, spread eastward
over Arctic America to GreenLind. * * *
" The likeness between all the different tribes of Eskimos, as well
as their secluded position with respect to other peoples, and the
perfection of their implements, might be taken to indicate that they
are of a very old race, in which everything has stiffened into definite
forms, which can now be but slowly altered. Other indications,
however, seem to conflict with such a hypothesis, and render it more
probable that the race was originally a small one. which did not
until a comparatively late period develop to the point at which we
now find it, and spread over the countries which it at present
inhabits."
Tarenetzky, 1900:-^ "'Die Frage ist bis jetzt noch nicht entschieden
und wird wahrscheinlich auch niemals definitiv entschieden wei'den
ob die gegenwiirtig die Nordostgrenze Asiens und die Nordwest-
grenze Amerikas bewohnenden Polaivolker urspriinglich aus Asien
nach Amerika oder in umgekehrter Richtung zu ihren Wohnsitzen
wanderten."
De Nadaillac -- believed that the Eskimo (with some other aborigi-
nal Americans), now savage and demoralized, have issued from races
more civilized and that they could raise themselves to the old social
level were it not for their struggle with inexorable climate, famines,
and lately also alcoholism.
Jenness, 1928 : -^ " We still believe that the Eskimos are funda-
mentally a single people; that they liad their origin in a homeland
not yet determined ; but we have learned that they reached their pres-
ent condition through a series of complex changes and migrations,
ihe outlines of which we have hardly begun to decipher."
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS INDICATED BY PRESENT DATA
The maze of thoughts on the origin of the Eskimo shows one fact
conclusively, which is that the necessary evidence on the subject has
hitherto been insufficient. From whatever side the problem has
been approached, whether linguistically, culturally, from the study
of myths, or even somatologically, the materials were, it is plain,
more or less inadequate and there was not enough for satisfactory
comparisons. The best contributions to Eskimo studies, from the
oldest to the most recent, all accentuate the need for further research
and more ample collections.
=' Tarenitzky, A., Beitrage zur Skelet-und Schadelkundo der Aleuten, Konaegen, Kenai
und Koljuschen. Mem. Acad, imp d. sc, ix. No. -1. p. 7. St. rptcrshurg. 1900.
- Nadaillac, M. dt, L<.-s Eskimo. L'Anthropologic, xiii, p. 104. 1902.
^ Jenness, D., Ethnological Problems of Arctic America. Amer. Geogr. See. Special
Publ. No. 7. New York, 1928.
356 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA Ieth. ann. 40
Another point is that heterogeneous and wide apart as many of the
opinions may seem, yet when the subject is looked upon with a
larger perspective they may often perhaps be harmonized. Thus a
belief in an American origin of the Eskimo need not exclude that in
the Asiatic derivation of his parental stock. Even in tiie case of the
supposed European derivation the Eskimo are understood to have
reached America through Asia; there is not one suggestion of any
importance advocating the coming of the Eskimo over northwestern
Europe and Iceland. Only the Meigs-Grote-Nordenskiold theory of
an ancient polar race and its descent southward appears now as
beyond the bounds of what would be at least partly justifiable.
What is the contribution to the subject of the studies reported in
this treatise, with its relatively great amount of somatological mate-
rial? The answer is not easy.
Even the truly great and precious material at hand is not sufficient.
There are important parts of the Arctic, such as the Hudson Bay
region, Baffin Land, and the central region; several parts of the west
coast, such as the inland waters of the Seward Peninsula and the
Eskimo portions of the Selawik, Kobuk, Xoatak, and Yukon Rivers ;
and above all the Eskimo pnvt of nortlieastern Siberia, from which
there are insufficient or no collections. There is, moreover, especially
in this country, a great want of skeletal material from the non-Es-
kimo Siberian tribes, and also from the old European peoj^les that are
of most importance for comi^arisons. It must be plain, therefore,
that even at present no final deductions are possible. All that can
be claimed for the evidence here brought forth is that it clears, or
tends to settle, certain secondary problems, and that it jDresents in-
dications of value for the rest of the question.
The secondary problems that .may herewith be regarded as settled
are as follows :
1. UnHy or pTmralify of the race. — The materials at hand give no
substantiation to the possibility of the Eskimo belonging to more than
one basic strain of people. They range in color from tan or light
reddish-yellow to medium brown ; in stature from decidedly short
to above the general human medium ; in head from brachycephalio
and low to extremely dolichocephalic, high and keel shaped; in eyes
from horizontal to decidedly mongoloid; in orbits from microseme
to hypermegaseme ; in nose from fully mesorrhinic to extremely
leptorrhinic ; in physiognomy from pure "Indian" to extreme
" Eskimo.'' Yet all through there runs, both in the living and in
the skeletal remains, so much of a basic identity that no separation
into any distinct original '" races " is possible. At most it is permis-
sible to speak of a few j)revalent types.
- 2. Relation. — The general basic prototype of the Eskimo, accord-
ing to all evidence, is so closely akin to that of the Indian that the two
hhdliCka] origin AND ANTIQUITY OF THE ESKIMO 357
can not be fully separated. They appear only as the thumb and the
digits of the same hand, some large old mother stock from which
both gi-adually differentiated. This appears to be an unavoidable
conclusion from the present anthropological knowledge of the two
peoples.
Tlie next unavoidable deduction is that the mother stock of both
the Eskimo and the Indian can only be identiKed with the great
yellow-brown stem of man, the home of which was in Asia, but the
roots of wliieh, as has been discussed elsewhere, were probably in
ancient (later paleolithic) Europe.-' The latter fact may explain the
cultural as well as somatological resemblances between the Eskimo,
as well as the Indian (for the Indian, physically at least, has much
in common with the upper Aurignacians). and the upper glacial
Euroijean populations. But such an explanation can not in the
light of present knowledge legitimately be extended to the assump-
tion that either the Indian complex or the Eskimo originated as
such in Europe ; they could be at most but parts oi the eventual more
or less further differentiated Asiatic progeny of the upper paleolithic
Europeans.
3. Mixture. — It has been assumed by Boas and others that the
eastern Eskimo have become admixed with the eastern Indian and
the western with the Alaskan Indian, that the physical and especially
craniological differences between the eastern and western Eskimo were
due to such a mixture, and that both extremes deviated from the type
of the pure Eskimo, who was to be found somewhere in the central
Arctic. Tlie evidence of the present studies does not sustain such an
assumption.
As shown before "° and is seen more clearly from the present data,
the western Eskimo type is also present or approached in various
localities in tlie far north (part of Smith Sound, Southampton
Island, part of the Hudson Bay coast, with i^robable spots in the
central Arctic proper). There is no indication of any central region
where the western Eskimo type would be much " purer " than
elsewhere.
Individual skulls and skeletons in the west, jjarticidarly in certain
spots (especially on Seward Peninsula), show the same characteris-
tics as the most diverging skulls or skeletons in the farthest
northeast.
And both in the west and in the east the most pronounced Eskimo
characteristics exceed similar features in the Indian, indicating in-
dependent development. Such cliaracteristics involve the stature
^ Hrdlifka, A., The Peopling of Asia. Troc. Am. Pliilos. Soc, Lx, 535 et seq. 1921 ; and
Tlie Peopling of tlio Eortb. Ibid., Lxv, l.'iO, et seq. 1926.
'^ Contrib. Autbrop. Central and Smith Sound Eskimo. Anthrop. Papers Am. Mus. Nat. i
Hist., 1910.
358 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 46
(taller in the west, shorter in the east than that of the Indian) ; the
size of the head (everywhere averaging higher in the Eskimo) ;
dolichocephaly, height of the head, its keel shape (all more pro-
nounced in the eastern and now and then a western Eskimo than in
anj^ Indian group) ; the face, nose, orbits, and lower jaw; with the
relative proportions and other characteristics of the skeleton. All
these point to functional and other developments within the Eskimo
groups and none suggest a large Indian admixture.
It is well known that more or less blood mixture takes place among
all neighboring peoples where contact is possible, even if otherwise
there be much enmity. Such enmity, often in an extreme formi, ex-
isted everywhere it seems between the Eskimo and the Indian, as a
result of the encroaching of the former on the latter ; there are many
statements to that effect. Within historic times also there are no
records of any adojDtions or intermarriages between the two peoples.
Nevertheless where contact took place, as on the rivers and in the
southwest as well as the southeast of the Eskimo territory, some blood
mixture, it would seem, must have developed. The Indian neighbor
.show it. and it would be strange if it remained one-sided. But of a
mixture extensive enough to have materially modified the type of
the Eskimo in whole large regions, such as the entire Bering Sea and
most of the far northeast, there is no evidence and little not only
probability but even possibility. Nothing approaching such an ex-
tensive mixture is shown by the near-by Indians; and it would be
most exceptional in people of this nature if a much greater propor-
tion of the mixture was into the Eskimo.
Finally, a mixture of diverse human types, unless very old, may be
expected to leave numerous physical signs of heterogeneity and
disturbance, none of which is shown by either the western or eastern
Eskimo. Such groups as that of the St. Lawrence Island, or that
of (Greenland, are among the most homogeneous human groups
known. The range of variation of their characters is as a rule a
strictly normal range, giving a uniform curve of distribution, which
is not consistent with the notion of any relatively recent material
mixture.
4. The indications. — The indications of the data and observations
presented in this volume may be outlined as follows :
The Eskimo throughout their territory are but one and the same
broad strain of people. This strain is fundamentally related to that
(or those) of the American Indian. It is also uncontestably related
to the yellow-brown strains of Asia.
In many respects, such as pigmentation, build of the body, physiog-
nomy, large brain, fullness of forehead, fullness of the fronto-spheno-
temporal region, largeness of face and lower jaw, height of the nose,
hedliCka] origin AND ANTIQUITY OF THE ESKIMO 359
*
size and characteristics of the teeth.-" smallness of hands and feet,
etc., the Eskimos are remarkably alike over their whole territory.
They differ in details, such as stature, form of the head, and breadth
of the nose. But the distribution of these differences is of much
interest and probably significance. Higher statures, broader heads,
and broader noses are found especially in the west, the latter two
particularly in the Bering Sea region; low group statures, narrow
heads and narrow noses reach, with few exceptions, their extremes
in the northeast. Between the two extremes, however, there is no
interruption, but a gradation, with here and there an irregularity.
These conditions sjDeak not of mixture but rather of adaptation and
differentiation.
They strongly suggest a moderate stream of people, rooted in Asia,
of fairly broad and but moderately high head, of a good medium
stature, with a mesorrhinic nose (and hence probably originally not
far northern), and with many other characteristics in common, reach-
ing America from northeasternmost Asia after the related Indians,
spreading along the seacoasts as far as it could, not of choice, or choice
alone, but mainly because of the blocking by the Indian of the roads
toward the south and through the interior ; and gradually modifying
physically in adaptation to the new conditions and necessities; to
climate, newer modes of life, the demands of the kayak, and above
all to the results of the increased demands on the masticatory organs.
The narrowness, increased length and increased height of the
Eskimo skull, without change in its size or other characteristics, may
readily be understood as compensatory adaptations, the develop-
ment of which was initiated and furthered by the develoi^ment and
mechanical effects of the muscles of mastication.
A similar conclusion has been reached in my former study on the
central and Smith Sound Eskimo (1910). It has been approached
or reached independently by other .students of the Eskimo, notably
Fiirst and Hansen (1915) in their great work on the East Green-
landers. It is a conclusion of much biological importance for it
involves not merely the development but also the eventual inheritance
of new characters.
Former authors, it was seen, have advanced the theories of an
American origin of the Eskimo. This could only mean that he
developed from the American Indian. And such a development
would imply physical and hereditary changes at least as great as
those indicated in the preceding paragraphs, and in less time. A
differentiation commenced well back in Asia, geographically and
chronologically, and advancing, to its present limits, in America
would seem the more probable.
"" See Amer. J. Phys. Anthrop., vi, Nos. 2 and 4. 1923.
360
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA
[KTH. ANN. 46
An origin of the Eskimo in Europe, during the last glacial inva-
sion, would not only pusli into the hazy far past the same ciianges as
here dealt with, but it would at the same time fail to explain the
physical differences within the Eskimo group, and deny any sub-
stantial changes in him during the long time of his migration
toward the American northern coasts.
Absolute proofs of the origin of the Eskimo, as of that of the
various strains of the Indians, are hardly to be expected. Sucli ori-
gins are so gradual and insidious that they would escape detection
even if watched for while occurring; they are noticed only after suf-
FiGiiRE 20. — Probable luuvemeilts of ycople from nurtlieastei'n Asia tu Alaska and in
Alaslta. (A. Hrdlifka)
ficient differences have developed and become established, which takes
generations. The solving of racial origins must depend on sound
scientific induction.
Such induction may not yet be fully possible in the case of the
Eskimo. The evidence is not yet complete. But with the present
and other most recent data there is enough on hand for substantial
indications. The evidence shows that barring some irregularities,
due possibly to later intrusions or refluxes, the farther east in the
Eskimo territory the observer proceeds tlie more highly differentiated
and divergent the Eskimo becomes, and there is a greater gap
HRDLlfKA] SUMMARY 361
between him and his Indian neighbors, as well as other races.
Proceeding from the east westward, conditions are reversed. In
general the farther west we proceed the less exceptional on the
wliole the Eskimo becomes and the more he approximates the Indian,
particularly the Indian of Alaska and the northwest coast. As this
can not, in the light of present evidence, be attributed alone to mix-
ture, it is plain that if it were possible to proceed a few steps farther
in this direction the differences between the Eskimo and the Indian
would fade out so that a distinction between the two would become
difficult if not impossible.
The facts point, therefore, to an original identity of the source
from which were derived the Indian, more particularly his latest
branches, and the Eskimo, and to the identification of this source with
the palaeo-Asiatic yellow-brown people of lower northern Asia. The
differentiation of the Eskimo from this source must have proceeded
over a fairly long time, and probably started already it would seem
on the northern coasts of Asia, where conditions were present capable
of beginning to shape him into an Eskimo ; to be carried on since in
the Bering Sea area and especially in the Seward Peninsula and
farther northward and eastward. In a larger sense the cradle of
the Eskimo, therefore, while starting jDrobably in northeast Asia,-
covered in reality a much vaster region, extending from northern
Asia and the Bering Sea to the far American Arctic.
SUMMARY
What is the substance of the results of all these new obseiwa-
tions and studies on the western Eskimo, who is the main subject of
this report? In large lines this may be outlined as follows:
1. The western Eskimo occupied, uninterrupted by other people
(save in a few spots by the Aleuts), the great stretch of the Alaskan
coast from Prince William Sound and parts of the Unalaska Penin-
sula to Point Barrow, all the islands in the Bering Sea except the
Aleutians and Pribilovs, and the northern and western coasts of
the Chukchi Peninsula in Asia.
They extended some distance inland along the Kuskokwim and
Yukon Rivers; along the interior lakes and rivers of the Seward
Peninsula; along a part of the Selawik River, most (perhaps) of the
Kobuk River, and apparentlj^ along the whole Noatak River, com-
municating over the land with the lower Colville Basin. But no
traces of original Eskimo settlements have ever been found in the
true Alaska inland or along those parts of the Alaska rivers that
constitute the Indian territory.
2. The present population is sparse, with many unpeopled inter-
vals, and not highly fecund, but, except when epidemics strike, it
88253°— 30 24
362 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [eth. anx. 46
110 more diminishes; children and young people are now much in
evidence, hygienic and economic conditions have improved, and the
]ieople in general are well advanced in civilization. Their condition
and morale are rather superior, in places very perceptibly so, to
those of the majority of the Alaska Indians.
3. Except where there has been more contact with whites, a
large percentage of these Eskimo are still full bloods. They are a
sturdy, cheerful, and liberal yet shrewd lot. They intermarry and
mix not inconsiderably among themselves (between villages). Some
of the white traders have married Eskimo women and raised prom-
ising families. Where larger numbers of whites were or are in prox-
imity clandestine mixture is apparent. The better educated show
often decidedly good mental, mechanical, business, and artistic abil-
ities. In the isolated localities, such as St. Lawi-ence Island, the
people have apparently escaped the jieriod of demoralization that so
often attends the passing from the old to new conditions.
Tuberculosis and venereal diseases are present but not prevalent;
rachitis seems absent. The people show much endurance, but lon-
gevity as yet is not much in evidence. Alcoholism is almost non-
existent except on occasions when drink is provided by whites.
. 4. The region of the western Eskimo shows a former larger popu-
lation of the same people. This is attested by many " dead " villages
and old sites. And this i^opulation evidently goes back some cen-
turies at least, for some of the remains are extensive and both their
depth and their contents give the impression of prolonged duration ;
though seemingly all thus far seen could be comprised within the
Christian era.
5. No habitations or remains belonging to a distinct people (In-
dians) have thus far come to light anywhere within the territory
of the western Eskimo; and no trace has as yet been found of
anything human that could be attributed to greater antiquity than
that of the Eskimo. But the older beaches and banks where such
remains might have existed have either been covered with storm -
driven sands and are now perpetually frozen, or they have been
"cut" away and lost; and there seems no hope for finding such re-
mains in the interior away from the sea or streams, for such parts
were never under recent geological conditions favorable for human
habitation.
6. The now known remains consist of the ruins of dwellings and
of accumulated refuse, the two together forming occasionally marked
elevated heaps or ridges. Some of these ridges are over 18 feet deep.
They contain many archeological specimens of stone, ivory, wood, and
bone. The ivory in the older layers is more or less " fossilized." The
upper layers of such remains usually contain some articles of white
HEDLICK4] SUMMARY 363
man's manufacture (copper, iron, beads) ; lower layers are wholly
aboriginal. Indian artifacts occur in Eskimo sites only in the
proximity of the Indian on tlie rivers.
7. The prevalent or later culture shown by the remains is fairly
rich, of good to relatively rather high grade, and of considerable uni-
formity. There are numerous indications of extensive trade in
vai'ious articles, particularly those of tlie Kobuk '' jade.''
8. On the Asiatic coast, in the northern parts of tlie Bering Sea,
on the Seward Peninsula, in tlie Kotzebue region and at Point Hope,
the deefjer portions of the remains give examples of the higher
and riclier " fossil ivory culture." This is distinguished by many
objects of liigh-class worlcmanship, and by curvilinear to scroll de-
signs. The art appears to have distinct affinities witli, on one hand,
deeper Asia, and on the other with the northwest coast of America
and even farther soutli. It is not clearly separated from either tlie
contemporaneous or tlie later Eskimo art, j'et it is of a higher grade
and delicacy and much distinctiveness. It is not yet known wliere
this art begins geographically, what preceded it, whence it was
derived, just how far it reached along tlie coasts, or even what was
its main center. It seems best for the present to reserve to it the
name of the " fossil ivory art " (rather than Jenness's too limiting
" Bering Sea culture ") , and to defer all conclusions concerning it to
the future.
9. It seems justifiable, however, to point to the significance of what
is already known. This " fossil ivory art " especially, but also the
general culture of the western Eskimo, are highly developed and
differentiated cultures, denoting considerable cultural background,
extended duration, and conditions generally favorable to industrial
and artistic developments. It has, it is already ascertained, cer-
tain affinities in Asia. If this art and the attending culture were
advancing toward America, as seems most probable, then the ques-
tion of cultural influences and introductions from Asia to America
will have to be reopened.
10. Due to the perpetually frozen ground and the consequent
necessity of sui'face burials, the area of the western Eskimo was,
until recently, relatively rich in skeletal remains lying on the sur-
face. It is no more so now, due to storms, beasts, missionaries,
teachers, and scientific collectors. But while only a scattering re-
mains of the surface material, there is much and that of special
importance lying in the ground, mostly self-buried or assimilated by
the tundra. This material, which now and then is accompanied by
interesting archeological specimens, calls for prompt attention; it
will help greatly in clearing local and other problems.
364 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA Ietii. ANN. 46
Occasionally burials vrei'e made or dead bodies were left in old
houses. These remains, too, may prove of special value.
11. Observations on both the living and the skeletal remains in
the western Eskimo area, supplemented by those on the northern
and northeastern Eskimo, are now ample enough to justify certain
generalizations. These are:
a. Barring the Aleuts, who are Indian, the Eskimo throughout
belong somatologically to but one family, and this family appears
as a remarkably pure racial unit, somewhat admixed in the south
with the Aleut, on the western rivers with the Indian, and in the
east and a few sjDots elsewhere with recent white people.
6. Within this family there is observable a considerable cranial
change, with moderate differences in nasal breadth, stature, and
color, but the general characteristics of the jjliysiognomy, and of the
body and the skeleton, remain remarkably similar.
c. The changes in the skull affect mainly the vault, which, in di-
mensions, ranges through all the intermediary grades from moder-
ately broad, short, and moderately high to pronouncedly narrow,
long, and high, and in form from moderately convex over the top to
markedly keel shaped.
The distribution of skull form is somewhat irregular, but in gen-
eral the broader and shorter heads predominate in the Asiatic and
the southwestern and midwestern American portions of the Eskimo
region, while the longest and narrowest heads are those of parts of
the Seward Peninsula, and especially those from an isolated old
settlement near Barrow with those of Greenland (exclusive of the
Smith Sound), Baffin Land, and, judging from other data, also east-
ern Labrador. More or less transitional forms are found between
the two extremes, without there being anywhere a clear line of
demarcation.
The breadth of the nose, too, averages highest in the Asiatic, Ber-
ing Sea, and the more southern Eskimo of the Alaska coast, the least
along the northern Ai'ctic coast and in the northeast. The statui'e
is highest along the western Alaska rivers and parts of the coast,
least in Greenland and Labrador.
The skin, while differing within but moderate limits, is ajjparently
lightest along parts (at least) of the northern Arctic.
12. The whole distribution of the physical characteristics among
the Eskimo strongly suggests gradual changes — within the family
itself; and as the long, narrow, high skull with keeled dome, occur-
ring in a few limited localities in the west but principally in southern
Greenland and neighboring territories, appears to be the farthest
limit of the differentiation which finds no parallel in the neighboring
or other peoisles, while the form found in northeastern Asia, the
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INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI
Bt EDWIN THOMPSON DENIG
EDITED WITH NOTES AND BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Bt J. N. B. HEWITT
375
PKEFACE
This manuscript Is entitled "A Report to the Hon. Isaac I.
Stevens, Governor of Washington Territory, on the Indian Tribes
of the Upper Missouri, by Edwin Thompson Denig." It has been
edited and arranged with an introduction, notes, a biographical
sketch of the author, and a brief bibliograjahy of the tribes mentioned
in the rejjort.
The report consists of 451 pages of foolscap size; closely written
in a clear and fine script with 15 pages of excellent pen sketches
and one small drawing, to which illustrations the editor has added
two photographs of Edwin Tliompson Denig and his Assiniboin
wife, Hai-kees-kak-wee-lah, Deer Little Woman, and a view of Old
Fort Union taken from " The jNIanoe-Denigs," a family chronicle,
New York. 1924.
The manuscript is undated, but from internal evidence it seems
safe to assign it to about the year 1854.
The editor has not attempted to verify the statements of the author
as embodied in the report; he has, however, where feasible, re-
arranged some portions of its contents by bringing together under
a single rubric remarks upon a common topic which appeared in
various parts of the report as replies to closely related but widely
placed questions; and he has attempted to do tliis without changing
tlie ]3hraseology or the terminology of Mr. Denig, except in very rare
instances, and then only to clarify a statement. For example, the
substitution of the native term for the ordinary English expression,
the Great Spirit, and divining in the place of " medicine '" in medi-
cine man, jjractically displacing medicine man, by the word dh'iner.
In his letter of transmittal " To his Excellency, Isaac I. Stevens,
Governor of Washington Territory," ]\Ir. Denig writes : " Being
stimulated with the desire to meet your wishes and forward the
views of government, I have in the following pages endeavored to
answer the ' Inquiries ' published by act of Congress, regarding the
' History. Present Condition, and Future Prospects of the Indian
Tribes ' with which I am acquainted. * * * Independent of my
own personal observation and knowledge acquired by a constant
residence of 21 years among the prairie tribes, in every situation, I
have on all occasions had the advice of intelligent Indians as to the
least important of these inquiries, so as to avoid, if possible, the
introduction of error. * * *
S8253'— 30 25 377
378 PEEFACE
"It is presumed the following pages exhibit a minutiae of infor-
mation on those subjects not to be obtained either by transient visi-
tors or a residence of a few years in the country, without being, as is
the case with myself, intimately acquainted with their camp regula-
tions, understanding their language, and in many instances entering
into their feelings and actions.
" The whole has been well digested, the different subjects pursued
in company with the Indians for an entire year, until satisfactory
answers have been obtained, and their motives of speech or action
well understood before placing the same as a guide and instruction to
others.
" The answers refer to the Sioux, Arikara, Mandan, Gros Ventres,
Cree, Crow, Assiniboin. and Blackfeet Nations, who are designated as
prairie, roving, or wild tribes — further than whom our knowledge
does not extend.
" I am aware of your capacity to judge the merits of the work and
will consider myself highly honored if I have had the good fortune
to meet your approbation; moreover I shall rejoice if I have con-
tributed in any degree toward opening a course of policy on the part
of the Government that may result in the amelioration of the sad
condition of the savages. Should the facts herein recorded ever be
published or embodied in other work it is hoped the errors of
language may be corrected, but in no instance is it desired that the
meaning should miscarry."
Elsewhere in this letter Mr. Denig writes : " Some of their cus-
toms and opinions now presented, although very plain and common
to us who are in their daily observance, may not have been rendered
in comprehensible language to those who are strangers to these
things, and the number of queries, the diversity of subjects, etc.,
have necessarily curtailed each answer to as few words as possible."
The report was made in response to a circular of "Inquiries, Re-
specting the History, Present Condition, and Future Prospects of
the Indian Tribes of the United States," by Henry R. Schoolcraft,
Office of Indian Affairs, Washington, D. C. printed in Philadelphia,
Pa., in 1851. This circular is a reprint of the circular issued in July,
1847, in accordance with the provisions of section 5, chapter 66, of
the Laws of the Twenty-ninth Congi-ess, second session, and ap-
proved March 3, 1847, which read, '■^ And he if fv/rther enacted, That
in aid of the means now possessed by the Department of Indian
Affairs through its existing organization, there be, and hereby is,
appropriated the sum of five thousand dollars to enable the said
department, under the direction of the Secretary of War, to collect
and digest such statistics and material as may illustrate the history,
the present condition, and future prospects of the Indian tribes of the
United States."
PREFACE 379
The original circular recites that it was addressed to four classes
of individuals, namely, " I. Persons holdino; positions under the
department, who are believed to have it in their power to impart
much practical information respecting the tribes who are, respec-
tively, under their charge. II. Persons who have retired from
similar situations, travelers in the Indian Territory, or partners and
factoi-s on the American frontiers. III. Men of learning or re-
search who have perused the best writers on the subject and who
may feel willing to communicate the results of their reading or re-
flections. IV. Teachers and missionaries to the aborigines."
The circular closes with an expression of the " anxiety which is felt
to give to the materials collected the character of entire authenticity,
and to be apprised of any erroneous views in the actual manners and
customs, character, and condition of our Indian tribes which may
have been promulgated. The Government, it is believed, owes it
to itself to originate a body of facts on this subject of an entirely
authentic character, from which the race at large may be correctly
judged by all classes of citizens, and its policy respecting the tribes
under its guardianship, and its treatment of them, properly under-
stood and appreciated."
The 348 inquiries in the circular embrace the history (and arche-
ology), the tribal organization, the religion, the manners and customs,
the intellectual capacity and character, the present condition, the
future prospects, and the language, of the Indian tribes of the United
States.
But the report of Mr. Denig consists of brief and greatly condensed
replies to as many of the questions propounded in the circular in
question as concerned the native tribes of the upper Missouri River,
to wit, the Ai-ikara, the Mandan, the Sioux, the Gros Ventres, the
Cree, the Crows, the Assiniboin, and the Blackfeet, tribes with whom
he was thoroughly acquainted, although the Assiniboin seem to have
been the chief subjects of his observations. It should be noted that
the answers to some of the questions, if adequately treated, would
have required nearly as much space as was devoted to the entire
report.
Wliile the facts embodied in the replies of Mr. Denig are, when
unqualified, affirmed of all the eight tribes mentioned in his letter
of transmittal, he is nevertheless careful, when needful, to restrict
many of his answers to the specific tribes to which their subject
matter particularly related. But, of course, all the tribes mentioned
belonged measurably to a single cultural area at that time.
That Mr. Denig made use of the circular issued by Mr. Schoolcraft
is clearly evident from the fact that on the left-hand margin of the
manuscript he usually wrote the number of the question to which
he was giving an answer.
380 PEEFACE
In the manuscript there appear two quite distinct handwritings,
and so it is possible that this particuhir manuscript is a copy of an
original which was retained by the author.
Dr. F. V. Haj'den made extensive use of this report in prei:)ara-
tion of his " Contributions to the Ethnography and Philology of
the Indian Tribes of the Missouri Valley," Philadelphia, C. Sherman
& Son, 1862. But he did not give Mr. Denig proper credit for using
verbatim numbers of pages of the manuscript without any indication
that he was copying a manuscrijjt work from another writer whose
position and long experience among them made him an authority on
the tribes in question. This piece of plagiarism was not concealed
by the bald statement of Doctor Hayclen that he Avas " especially
indebted to Mr. Alexander Culbertson, the well-known agent of the
American Fur Co., who has spent 30 j^ears of his life among the
wild tribes of the Northwest and speaks several of their languages
with great ease. To Mr. Andrew Dawson, superintendent of Fort
Benton; Mr. Charles E. Galpin, of Fort Pierre; and E. T. Denig,
of Fort Union. I am under great obligations for assistance freely
granted at all times."
Mr. Edwin Thompson Denig, the author of this manuscript re-
port, was the son of Dr. George Denig and was born March 10, 1812,
in McConnellstown, Huntingdon County, Pa., and died in 1862 or
1863 in JIanitoba, probalily in the town of Pilot Mound, in the vicin-
ity of which his daughters live, or did live in 1910. His legally mar-
ried wife was the daughter of an Assiniboin chief, by whom he had
two daughters, Sara, who was born August 10, 1844, and Ida, who
was born August 22, 1854, and one son. Alexander, who was born May
17, 1852, and who was killed by lightning in 1904.
To his early associates Mr. Denig was a myth, more or less, having
gone West as a young man and having died there. He lost caste
with his family because of his marriage with the Assiniboin woman.
Mr. Denig entered the fur trade in 1833 and became very influ-
ential among the tribes of the upper ilissouri River. He was for
a time a Government scout; then a bookkeeper for the American
Fur Co. Earlier he had gone to St. Louis and became connected
with the Choteaus and the American Fur Co. Before he was 30
years of age he was living among the Indians as the representative
of these two companies in that vast and almost unknown region
between the headwaters of the Mississippi and the Missouri Rivers
inhabited by tribes of the Sioux.
Mr. Denig became a bookkeeper for the American Fur Co. at
Fort Union, situated near the mouth of the Yellowstone River, of
the offices of which for a time, about 1843, he was superintendent.
Because of his thorough and comprehensive knowledge of the Indians
PREFACE 381
of his ado^jted tribe, their language, customs, and tribal relations,
he was consulted by most of the noted Indian investigators of that
period — Schoolcraft, Hayden, and others.
Being a Government scout, Mr. Denig was able to conciliate the
Indians during the expedition of Audubon in 1843, making it pos-
sible for the great Frenchman to collect his wonderful specimens.
A very colorful description of Fort Union was written by Mr. Denig
July 30, 1843. This description is found in Volume II, page 180,
of " Audubon and His Journals." In it Mr. Denig writes : " Fort
Union, the principal and handsomest trading post on the Missouri
River, is situated on the north side, about 6V2 niiles above the mouth
of the Yellowstone River; the country around it is beautiful and
well chosen for an establishment of the kind." Then after describ-
ing in detail the structure and furnishings of the fort, he says:
" The princijjal building in the establishment, and that of the gentle-
man in charge, or bourgeois, is now occupied by Mr. Culbertson, one
of the partners of the company," and farther on, " Next to this
is the office, which is devoted exclusively to the business of the com-
pany. * * * This de^jartment is now under my supervision
[viz, E. T. Denig]."
During this period Audubon sojourned with him for some time
and spoke of him not only as an agreeable companion but also as a
friend who gave him valuable information and enthusiastic assist-
ance. One of his frequent companions at Fort Union was the Belgian
priest, Father De Smet. Their corresjiondence was continued after
De Smet had returned to Belgium. (See Life, Letters and Travels
of Father De Smet, Chittenden and Richardson, 4 vols., New York,
1905.)
Several plausible but nevertheless quite unsatisfactory etymologic
interpretations of the name, Assiniboin, have been made by a num-
ber of writers. Among these interpretations are " Stone Roasters,"
" Stone Warriors," " Stone Eaters," etc. Tliese are unfortunately
historically improbable. It appears that difficulty arises from a mis-
conception of the real meaning of the limited or qualified noun it
contains, namely, hoin. This element appears in literature, dialecti-
cally varied, as pour, poitar, poll, poual, Iwdn, pwan, pwdt, etc.
Evidenth', it was the name of a grou^) of people, well known to the
Cree and the Chippewa tribes, whom they held in contempt and so
applied this noun, b&in, liixm, pwdt, etc., to them. The signification
of its root bivd(n) or pwd{t) is " to be powerless, incapable, weak."
So that Ptvdtak or Bwdnug (animate plurals) is a term of contempt
or derision, meaning " The Weaklings, The Incapable Ones." This
name was in large measure restricted to the nomadic group of Siouan
tribes in contradistinction from the sedentary or eastern group of
382 PREFACE
Siouan peoples who were called Nadowesiwiig, a term appearing in
literature in many variant spellings. The name Dakota in its re-
stricted use is the appellation of the group of tribes to which the
name Bwdnug, etc., was applied. This fact indicates that the Assini-
hoin, or Assinibwdnug , were recognized as a kind of Dakota or Na-
kota peoples. Nakota is their own name for themselves. The rup-
ture of the Dakota tribal hegemony thrust some of these peoples
northward to the rocky regions about Lake Winnipeg and the
Saskachewan and Assiniboin rivers. So it was these who were
called Eock or Stone Dakota (i. e., Bwdnug). It would thus appear
that the rupture occurred after there were recognized the two groups
of Siouan tribes in the past, namely, the nomadic or western, the
Dakota, and the sedentary or eastern, the Nadawedmug of literature.
Traditionally, the Assiniboin people are an offshoot of the Wazi-
kute gens of the Yanktonai (Ihafikto°wa°na) Dakota.
Dr. F. V. Hayden in his " Contributions to the Ethnography and
Philology of the Indian Tribes of the Missouri Valley " says that
Mr. Denig was " an intelligent trader, who resided for many years at
the junction of the Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers as superintend-
ent of Fort Union, the trading post for the Assiniboins." Of the
vocabulary of the Assiniboin language, recorded by Mr. Denig, Doc-
tor Hayden wrote that it is " the most important " one theretofore
collected. From the citation from Mr. Denig's description of Fort
Union in a preceding paragraph it appears that Doctor Hayden is in
error in making Mr. Denig superintendent of the fort rather thiin of
the office of the American Fur Co. at that point.
In one of his letters Reverend Father Terwecoren wrote that Mr.
Denig, of the St. Louis Fur Co., is " a man of tried probity and
veracity."
From references in Audubon, Kurtz, De Smet, Hayden, and School-
craft, and as well from a perusal of this manuscript, it is evident
that Mr. Denig was an exceptional man, and for more than 20 years
was a prominent figure in the fur trade of the upper Missouri River.
In this summary rejDort to Governor Stevens Mr. Denig has suc-
cinctly embodied in large measure the culture, the activities, the
customs, and the beliefs of the native tribes who occupied the upper
Missouri River 75 years ago, more than 75 per cent of which has been
lost beyond recovery by contact with the white man. For more
than 40 years the native life with which Mr. Denig was in contact has
been largely a thing of the past, so that it is futile to attempt to
recover it from the remnants of the tribes who formerly traded with
Mr. Denig at Fort Union.
In addition to preparing this report to Governor Stevens Mr.
Denig also recorded a Blackfoot Algonquian vocabulary of about 70
words, a Gros Ventres Siouan vocabulary, and an Assiniboin Siouan
PREFACE 383
vocabulary of more than 400 words, which was published by School-
craft in his fourth volume.
From a letter written February 27, 1923, by Dr. Rudolph Denig,
of 56 East Fifty-eighth Street, New York, N. Y., the following in-
teresting biogra^jhical matter relating to the ancestry of Mr. Denig
is taken :
The Denigs, or " Deneges," trace their descent from one Herald
Ericksen, a chieftain, or " smaa kongen," of the Danish island of
ilanoe in the North Sea, from whose descendant Red Vilmar, about
14G0, they derive an unbroken lineage. They were seafarers, com-
manding their own vessels, and engaged in trade in the North and
Baltic Seas.
About 1.570 Thorvald Christiansen changed the tradition of the
family by becoming a tiller of the soil, having obtained possession
of a large farm near Ribe in northern Slesvig, which to this day
bears its ancient name of Volling gaard. Christian Thomsen, 1636-
1704, was the first of the family to take up a learned profession ; he
studied theology, and being ordained a minister in the Lutheran
Church, he was also the first biograi^her of the family, in that he left
a kind of genealogy inscribed on the flyleaves of his Bible.
His grandson, Frederick Svensen, took part as corporal in a
Danish auxiliary corps at the age of 17 in Marlborough's operations
in the Netherlands in the war of the Spanish Succession. Following
the disbanding of his corps he took up his residence in Cologne, and
after a few years he found a permanent home, about 1720, in Biebrich-
Mosbach, opposite Mayence.
The two branches of the familj' at present are the descendants of
Philip George and Johan Peter, both sons of Frederick. Johan
Peter emigrated to Amei'ica in 1745, leaving among his descendants
Edwin Thompson Denig, the subject of this treatise; Commodore
Robert Gracie Denig, United States Navy, his son; Major Robert
Livingston Denig, United States Marine Corps, a distinguished
soldier of the World War, and Dr. Blanche Denig, a well-known
woman physician of Boston.
The descendants of Philip George include Dr. Rudolph C. Denig,
professor of clinical ophthalmology in Columbia University, New
York, N. Y.
Ethnologically, it may be of more than passing interest to know
that the name Denig was originally Denek(e), then Deneg, which
was taken as a family name by Frederick Svensen at the time he left
Denmark in 1709. Until then the family had followed the old Scan-
dinavian custom of the son taking his father's first name with the
suffix sen or son as his family name.
384 PREFACE
The Denigs came to their present name in the following manner:
After the Kalmar War, 1611-1613, conditions in Denmark became
critical, and the Danes were hard pressed for all the necessaries of
life, esjDecially foodstuffs. They were therefore forced to import
grain from neighboring countries. So it happened that Ludvig
Thorvaldsen, born in 1590, was sent l)y his father. Thorvald Chris-
tiansen, to Valen in Westphalia, a district still renowned for its
agriculture, to buy corn.
Ludvig went there every fall for thi'ee or four successive yeai-s.
Eventually the Westphalians nicknamed him Deneke; " Den " mean-
ing Dane, and the suffix " eke," like " ike," " ing." and " ig," a diminu-
tive, derivative, or patronymic. Naturally this surname was not
used at home, but it became useful when occasional trips took mem-
bers of the family outside of Denmark.
The use of such a nom de guerre has always been popular with
Scandinavian and kindred races like the Friesians. As the supply
of available names did not meet the demand, frequent similarity
of names made it difficult to avoid losing one's identity.
When Frederick Svensen Deneg had settled in Biebrich-Mosbaeli
the name Deneg had to undergo another change. While in the north
the syllable " eg " is pronounced like " ek," the Chatto-Franconian
dialect around IMayence pronounces it like " esh." Automatically,
for eu^Dhonic reasons the name was dialectically changed to Denig.
In former times such capricious changes in names were frequently
made. In perusing old chronicles many names are found written
in three or four different ways within one century. An instance to
the point is the Frankish name of King Meroveg, who was also
called Merovig, and his descendants were called Meroveger, Mero-
viger. and Merovinger, according to dialects spoken in the different
regions of the former Frankish empire. This parallels the change
of Deneg to Denig.
Upon his arrival, September 5, 1851, at Fort Union, 3 miles
above the mouth of the Yellowstone River on the Missouri. ]\Ir.
Frederick Ktirz, the Swiss artist, of Berne, Switzerland, who had
heard some ugly rumors about Mr. Denig, wrote in his Journal
(yet in manuscript) : " Bellange delivered the letter he brought to
a small, hard-featured man, wearing a straw hat, the brim of which
was turned up in the back. He was my new bourgeois^ Mr. Denig.
He impressed me as a rather prosy fellow. . . . He ordered sup-
per delayed on our account that we might have a better and more
plentiful meal. A bell svnnmoned me to the first table with Mr.
Denig and the clerks. My eyes almost ran over with tears. There
was chocolate, milk, butter, omelet, fresh meat, hot bread — what
a magnificent spread. I changed my opinion at once concerning
PREFACE 385
this new chief; a hard, nifjcardly person could not have reconciled
himself to such a hospitable reception in behalf of a subordinate
■who was a total stranger to him" (pp. 205-206). Kurz remained
•with Denig three years.
Again, Kurz wrote : " In his relations with me he is most kind
and agreeable. Every evening he sits with me either in my room
or in front of the gate and relates experiences of his earlier life.
As he has held his position in this locality for 19 years already,
his life has been full of adventure with Indians — particularly since
the advent of the whisky flask. He wishes me to paint, also, a
portrait of himself and his dog, Natah (Bear), a commission I am
very glad to execute " (p. 211).
Again, in speaking of the duties of Mr. Denig, Kurz wrote:
" It goes without saying that a howr/eois who occupies the position
of responsible warden, chief tradesman, and person in highest au-
thority at a trading-post far removed, where he has fifty men under
his direction, may regard himself of more importance than a man
who directs five men " (p. 213) .
Again Kurz wrote: "As a matter of course, Denig keeps the
subordinate workmen strictly under his thumb — what is more, he
has to, if he is to prevent their overreaching him. He feels, how-
ever, that one man alone is not sufficient to enforce good order
among these undei-lings, for evei-y one of them is armed and, though
not courageous in general, are, nevertheless, touchy and revengeful.
So, for purposes of order and protection he has attached to himself
the clerks who stand more nearly on the same level with him in
birth and education and afford, besides, the only support, moral as
well as physical, upon which he can reckon" (p. 21C).
Again Kurz wrote: "He talks to me continually about Indian
legends and usages. As he writes the best of these stories for Pere
De Smet, by whom they are published, there is no need of my pre-
serving more than some bits of memoranda" (p. 238). This ex-
plains why the writings on these matters of Father De Smet have a
close family resemblance with those of Mr. Denig.
Again Kurz wrote : " Mr. Denig has been reading to me again
from his manuscript, which is extremely interesting. He is very
well educated and he has made a thorough study of Indian life — a
distinct advantage to him in trade. He is so fond of the life in
this part of the country that he is averse to any thought of going
back to his Pennsylvania home in the United States. For the
reason, as he says, that he may avoid political carryings-on that
disgust him" (p." 242).
Another entry in the Kurz Journal reads: "September the 24th.
Began a poitrait of Mr. Denig — life-size, knee-length. This work
386 PREFACE
is to be finished before Mr. Culbertson's return from Fort Laramie"
(p. 254).
The following citation is from the Kurz Journal at page 577:
'' February the 26th, Mr. Denig is a Swedenborgian and at the same
time he is a Freemason. He mentioned to me that it would be of
great advantage on my travels if I were a Freemason."
It seems appropriate to insert here briefly what another intimate
friend of Mr. Denig, the Reverend Father De Smet, thought of the
knowledge and attainments of our author. Father De Smet in
speaking of the source of his information in a particular instance
wrote : " I have it from two most reliable sources — that is to say,
from a man of tried probity and veracity, Mr. Denig of the Saint
Louis Fur Company . . ."^
On page 1215 of this same work Father De Smet in a personal
letter to Mr. Denig, dated September 30, 1852, wrote : " I do not know
how to express my gratitude for your very interesting series of
narratives concerning the aborigines of the Far West. . . . Noth-
ing could be more gratifying to me than the beautiful and graphic
details which you have given me of the religion, manners, customs,
and transactions of an unfortunate race of human beings."
It is hoped that these excerpts from the writings of Frederick Kurz
and Father De Smet, both intimately associated with Mr. Denig, will
supply some data concerning our author not otherwise accessible.
The Swiss artist, Friedrich Kurz, who painted many pictures of
the region around Fort Union, lived with Denig for some time, and
in 1851 painted his portrait.
The Indians called Mr. Denig " The Long Knife," which simply
meant that they knew him as "an American."
In the manuscript Mr. Denig employs the word " band " to denote
" a gens of a tribe," the word " clans " to denote " societies " or
" corporations," and the " orders of doctors " he calls " shamans or
theurgists." To understand Mr. Denig these meanings must be kept
in mind.
The Editor.
• Chittenden, H. M.. and Rich.Tidson, A. T. Life, letters, and travels of Father Pierre-
Jean De Smet, S. J., 1801-1873. Vol. IV, p. 1111. New York, 1905.
I
CONTENTS
Page
Letter of transmittal 393
The Asbiniboin
History 395
Origin 395
Name and geographical position 396
Ancient and modern habitat 397
Vestiges of early tradition 398
Names and events in history 399
Present rulers and condition 401
Intertribal rank and relations 403
Magnitude and resources of territory a cause of the multiplication of
tribes 405
Geography 406
Figure of the globe 406
Local features of the habitat 406
Surface of the country 407
Facilities for grazing 408
Effect of firing the prairies 408
Wastelands 409
Effects of volcanic action 409
Saline productions 409
Coal and mineral products ' 410
Climate 410
Wild animals 410
Ancient bones and traditions of the monster era 411
Animals used as armorial marks 412
The horse — Era of importation 412
Pictographs — Charts on bark 412
Antiquities 413
Pipes . 413
Vessels and implements 414
Astronomy and geology 414
Earth and its motions 414
The sun 415
The sky 415
Future life — Indian paradise 418
Arithmetic 418
Numeration 418
Coin 420
Keeping accounts 420
Elements of figures 421
Medicine 422
General practice 422
Depletion by bleeding 426
Stoppage of blood and healing art 427
Amputation 427
Theory of diseases and their remedy 428
Parturition 429
387
388 CONTENTS
Page
Government 430
Tribal organization and government 430
Chiefs 431
The Sndoo-kah, "Circumcised" 434
Soldiers 436
Councils 446
Scope of civil jurisdiction 448
Chiefship 448
Power of the war chief 449
Power of the priests in councils 450
Matrons in councils 451
General councils 451
Private right to take life 452
Game laws, or rights of the chase 455
Indian trade 457
Education 466
Warfare 470
Property 474
Territorial rights 476
Primogeniture 478
Crime 479
Prayers 483
Prayer of warrior 483
Prayer to ghosts 484
The moon 484
Parental affection 485
Religion J 486
Immortality 498
Mythology: Legends, tales 500
Manners and customs 503
Constitution of the Assiniboin family; kinship 503
Camp life 505
Courtship and marriage 510
Music 612
Longevity 513
Hospitality 513
Midwifery, childbirth, naming 516
Assiniboin personal names 518
Children 519
Suicide 522
Personal behavior 523
Scalping 524
Oaths 524
Smoking 524
Fame 525
Stoicism 525
Taciturnity 526
Public speaking 526
Travel 526
Senses 527
Juggling and sorcery 528
Strength and endurance 529
Spirituous liquors 629
CONTENTS 389
Page
Hunting 530
Throwing buffalo in a park 532
Approaching buffalo 534
Deer hunting 536
Elk hunting 537
Grizzly bears 537
Beaver 538
Wolves and foxes 538
Instruction in hunting 542
Fishing 544
War 544
Costume of a warrior 553
Weapons 555
Dancing and amusements 556
Scalp dance 557
Brave's dance 558
Fox dance 561
Duck dance 562
Bulls' dance 562
Soldiers' dance 562
White crane dance 563
Crow dance 564
Dance of the mice comrades 564
Whip dance 564
God-seeking dance 564
Women's dance 564
Games 565
Racing 566
Gambling 567
Death and its consequences 570
Orphans and the aged 576
Lodges 577
Canoes 579
Mental and ethical advancement 579
Medicine; drugs 581
Food 581
Garments; dresses 584
Ornaments 590
Paints and dyes 591
Tattooing 592
Badges of office 592
Beard 593
Intellectual capacity and character 593
Picture writing 603
Myth telling 607
Fables 609
Songs; music 617
Present condition and future prospects 620
Intermarriage with whites 625
Population 625
Language 625
Bibliography 627
Index 629
ILLUSTRATIONS
PLATES
Page
62. Fort Union as it ai)]3eared in 1833 394
63. Edwin Thompson Denig and Mrs. Denig 394
64. Drawings by an Assiniboin Indian 414
65. Culinary utensils 414
66. Characteristic implements of the Assiniboin 414
67. a, Comb root; b, Cat-tail 414
68. The calumet and its accompaniments 446
69. A buffalo park or "surround" 532
70. An Assiniboin running a buffalo 532
71. Scalp dance 558
72. Coo-soo', or game of the bowl 558
73. The Chun-kan-dee' game 578
74. A lodge frame and a completed lodge 578
75. The interior of a lodge and its surroundings 578
76. An Assiniboin stabbing a Blackfoot 578
77. Map of region above Fort Union 606
78. Diagram of a battle field 606
79. Diagram of a battle field 606
80. Musical instruments 606
TEXT FIGURES
30. Lancet 426
31. Diagram of a council lodge 437
32. Cradle board 519
33. Tool for fleshing the hide 540
34. Tool for scraping hides or shaving the skin 541
35. Picture writing 603
391
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
To His Excellency Isaac I. Stevens,
Governw of Washington Tet^tory.
Sir : Being stimulated with a desire to meet your wishes and for-
ward tlie views of Government, I have in the following pages en-
deavored to answer the Inquiries published by act of Congress re-
garding the history, present condition, and future prospects of the
Indian triljes with which I am acquainted.
Had I been called upon to illustrate the facts herein recorded by
reference to their different individual histories and actions, a
more voluminous and perhaps interesting work might have been
presented the general reader, but in conformity to the instructions
laid down in the document referred to, have only replied to the vari-
ous queries, limiting the answers to plain statements of facts.
Independent of my own personal observation and knowledge
acquired by a constant residence of 21 years among the prairie tribes
in every situation, I have on all occasions had the advice of intelli-
gent Indians as to the least important of these queries, so as to avoid,
if possible, the introduction of error. Should there be new ideas
presented, and the organization, customs, or present condition of the
Indians made public in the following manuscript differ either ma-
terially or immaterially from any other now extant I would beg
leave to say I would much rather have the same i-ejected than to see
it published in a mutilated form or made to coincide with any his-
tories of the same people from others who have not had like oppor-
tunities of acquiring information.
Some of their customs and opinions now presented, although very
plain and common to us who are in their daily observance, may not
have been rendered in comprehensible language to those who are
stranger to these things, and the number of queries, the diversity of
subjects, etc., have necessarily curtailed each answer to as few words
as possible. In the event, therefore, of not being understood or
of apparent discrepancies presenting, it would be but justice done the
author and patron to have the same explained, which would be cheer-
fully done.
It is presumed the following pages exhibit a minutiae of informa-
jtion on those subjects not to be obtained either by transient visitors
or a residence of a few years in the country, without being, as is the
S8253°— 30 26 393
394 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
case with myself, intimately acquainted with their camp regulations,
understanding their language, and in many instances entering into
their feelings and actions. The whole has been well digested, the
different subjects pursued in company with the Indians for an entire
year, until satisfactory answers have been obtained, and their motives
of speech or action well understood before placing the same as a
guide and instruction to others. The answers refer to the Sioux,
Arikara, Mandan, Gros Ventres, Cree, Crow, Assiniboin, and Black-
feet Nations, who are designated as prairie roving or wild tribes,
further than whom our knowledge does not extend.
I am aware of your capacity to judge the merits of the work, and
will consider myself highly honored if I have had the good fortune to
meet your apiDrobation. Moreover, I shall rejoice if I have contrib-
uted in any degree toward opening a course of policy on the part of
Government that may result in the amelioration of the sad condition
of the savages. Should the facts herein recorded ever be published
or embodied in other works, it is hoped the errors of language may be
corrected, but in no instance is it desired that the meaning should
miscarry.
Should any references be required by the department for whom
this is written I beg leave to name as my friends and personal ac-
quaintances in addition to your Excellency, Col. D. D. Mitchell, Ken-
neth Mackruger, Esq., Kev. P. I. De Smet, Messrs. P. Chouteau, Jr.,
& Co., and Alex. Culbertson, Esq., all of St. Louis, and Dr. John
Evans, United States geologist, any of whom will satisfy inquiries on
this head.
Permit me, my dear friend, to remain with great respect and high
consideration, truly your most obedient servant,
Edwin T. Denig.
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INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI
By Edwin T. Denig
THE ASSINIBOIN ^
History
Origin. — But little traditionary can be stated by these Indians as
authentic of their origin which would be entitled to record in history,
though many singular and fabulous tales are told concerning it. As
a portion of people, however, once inhabiting another district and
being incorjjorated witii another nation, their history presents a con-
nected and credible chain of circumstances. The Assiniboin were
once a part of the great Sioux or Dacotah Nation, residing on the
tributary streams of the Mississippi ; say, the head of the Des Moines,
St. Peters, and other rivers. This is evident, as their language with
but little variation is the same, and also but a few years back there
lived a very old chief, known to all of us as Le Gros Francois, though
his Indian name was Wah-he' Muzza or the " Iron Arrow-point,"
who recollected perfectly the time of their separation from the Sioux,
which, according to his data, must have been about the year 1760.-
He stated that when Lewis and Clark came up the Missouri in 1805
his band of about 60 lodges (called Les Gens des Roches) had after a
severe war made peace with the Sioux, who at that time resided on
the Missouri, and that he saw the expedition referred to near White
Earth River, these being the first body of whites ever seen by them,
although they were accustomed to be dealt with by the fur traders
of the Mississippi. After their first separation from the Sioux they
moved northward, making a peace with the Cree and Chippewa,
took possession of an uninhabited country on or near the Saskatche-
wan and Assiniboin Rivers, in which district some 2.50 or 300 lodges
.'5till reside. ' Some time after the expedition of Lewis and Clark, or
at least after the year 1777, the rest of the Assiniboin, at that time
about 1,200 lodges, migrated toward the Missouri, and as soon as
they found superior advantages regarding game and trade, made
^ Consult Preface for etymolojjic analysis of this word and for Us objective moaning.
- This traditional date given by Denig is evidently much too late, for as early as the
middle of the seventeenth century they were known to the Jesuit missionaries of Canada.
395
396 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ann. 46
the latter country their home. One principal incident in tlieir his-
tory which they have every reason to remember and by which many
of the foregoing data are ascertained is a visitation of the smallpox
in 1780 (see Mackenzie's travels), when they occupied the British
territory. Even yet there are two or three Indians living who are
marked by the disease of that period and which greatly thinned their
population, though owing to their being separated through an im-
mense district, some bands entirely escajsed. Upon the whole it does
not appear to have been as destructive as the same disease on the
Missouri in 1838, which I will have occasion to mention in its proper
place in these pages and which reduced them from 1,200 lodges to
about 400 lodges.
Name and Geographical Position.— The name of the Assiniboin
among themselves is Da-co-tah, same as the Sioux, which means " our
people." By the Sioux they are called Ho'-hai or "Fish-eaters,"
perhaps from the fact that they lived principally on fish while on
the British grounds, as most of those Indians do. By the Cree
and Chippewa they are called As-see-nee-poi-tuc or Stone Indians;
hence the English name of Assiniboin arises. As has been stated,
at the earliest date known they roved about the head of St. Peters,
Des Moines, Lac du Diable, and Lac qui Parle ; and they were then
joined with the Sioux Indians, who inhabited and claimed all > the
lands between the Mississippi and the Missouri as low down as Big
Sioux River and as high up as the head of Rivier a Jacques, thence
northward toward Lac du Diable, other bands of Sioux (Teton)
residing west of the Missouri. The number of Assiniboin when they
separated must have been at least 1,500 lodges, averaging six souls
to a lodge [or about 9,000 persons]. Their migration has been
referred to and the extent of land they occupied in the British terri-
tory on the Saskatchewan, etc., was very large, but at present their
habitat is entirely different, and it may be as well to state it here.
The northern Assiniboin, 250 or 300 lodges, rove the country from
the west banks of the Saskatchewan, Assiniboin, and Red Rivers
in a westward direction to the Woody Mountains north and west
among small spurs of the Rocky Mountains east of the Missouri, and
among chains of small lakes through this immense region. Occa-
sionally making peace with some of the northern bands of Blackfeet
enables them to come a little farther west and deal with tliose Indians,
but, these " peaces " being of short duration, they are for the most
part limited to the prairies east and north of the Blackfeet range.
The rest of the Assiniboin, say 500 to 520 lodges [who may be called
the Southern Assiniboin], occupy the following district, viz, com-
mencing at the mouth of the White Earth River on the east, extend-
ing up that river to its head, thence northwest along the Couteau
DENIQ] THE ASSINIBOIX 397
de Prairie, or Divide, as far as the Cyprus IMountains on the North
Fork of the Milk River, thence down Milk River to its junction with
the Missouri River, thence down the Missouri River to the mouth
of AVhite Earth River, or the starting point. Formerly they in-
habited a portion of country on the south side of the Missouri River
along the Yellowstone River, but of late years, having met with
great losses by Blackfeet, Sioux, and Crow war parties, they have
been obliged to abandon this region and now they never go there.
As before remarked, the Assiniboin still numbered 1,000 to 1,200
lodges, trading on the Missouri until the year 1838, when the small-
pox reduced their numbers to less than 400 lodges. Also, being
surrounded by large and hostile tribes, war has had its share in
their destruction, though now they are increasing slowly.
Ancient and Modern Habitat.— Before proceeding further it
would be well to state and bear in mind that of all the Indians now
residing on the Missouri River the Assiniboin appear to have made
the least progress toward acquiring civilized ideas or Icnowledge of
any kind. Superstitious, lazy, and indisposed to thought, they make
no attempt to improve themselves in any waj'. ' Neither are they
anxious that othei's should teach them; consequently they are far
behind the other tribes even as regards their own savage manner of
life. This will receive further explanation. They do not think the
Great Spirit created them on or for a particular portion of country,
but that he made the whole prairie for the sole use of the Indian,
and the Indian to suit the prairie, giving among other reasons the
fact that the buffalo is so well adapted to their wants as to meat
and clothing, even for their lodges and bowstrings. To the Indian is
allotted legs to run, eyes to see far, bravery, instinct, watchfulness,
and other capacities not developed in the same degree in the whites.
The Indian, therefore, occupies any section of prairie where game is
plentiful and he can protect himself from enemies. With regard to
any other kind of right than that of possession and ability to de-
fend,. besides the general right granted by the Great Spirit, they
have not the most distant idea. The Assiniboin conquered nothing
to come into possession of their habitat, they had their difficulties
with surrounding tribes and still have, as others have, and continue
as they commenced, fighting and hunting alternately. Their first
interview with Europeans (now spoken of) was when the traders
of the Mississippi pushed their traffic as far as their camps, and
from whom they obtained firearms, woolen clothing, utensils, etc.
Afterwards these supplies were had from the Hudson Bay Co. and,
latterly, from the Americans on the Missouri River. There is every
reason to believe that the introduction of ardent spirits among therri
was coeval, if not antecedent, to that of any other article of trade.
398 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. anx. 4C
Before the trade was opened with them by the whites they say they
used knives made of the hump rib of the buffalo, hatchets made of
flint stone, mallets of the same, cooking utensils of clay and wood,
bones for awls, and sinew for thread, all of which articles can yet be
found among them. They made with these rude tools their bows and
arrows, pointing the latter with stone, and, as game was abundant,
hunted them on foot or threw them into pens built for the purpose,
which method they continue to use to this day. In this way they
had no difficulty in supporting themselves, and so contend that they
have gained notiiing by intimacy with the whites but diseases which
kill them off in numbers and wants which they are unable at all
times to gratify. They have never sold lands by treaty, and the only
treaty (with the exception of that at Laramie, 1851) was made by
them through an Indian agent of the United States named Wilson,
at the Mandan village in 1825. But this was merely an amicable
alliance for the protection of American traders and an inducement
held out to the Indians to leave off trading at the Hudson Bay Co.'s
posts and establish themselves on the Missouri, without, however,
any remuneration on the part of the United States.
Vestiges of Early Tradition. — They have no creditable tradition
of the Mosaic account of the creation or deluge, neither of their
ancestors having lived in other lands nor knowledge of foreign
quadrupeds nor any idea of whites or other races occupying the
country before the Indians. It is easy to perceive in converse with
them that whites have from time to time endeavored to explain the
Mosaic account of the creation and deluge, together with other
scriptural records, but instead of comprehending the same they have
mixed with their own superstitions and childish notions in so many
various and nonsensical forms that none is worthy of record.
They have no name for America, neither do they know of its
extent, for the most part believing that the lands occupied by them-
selves and the surrounding tribes compose the greatest part of the
world, and certainly contain the greatest reputed number of people.
It vexes and grieves them to be told of large tracts of land elsewhere,
and they do not or will not believe the whites to be as human as
they are.
There is nothing in this subject any Assiniboin could either com-
prehend or answer, except that there is a mound about 50 miles
above the mouth of the Yellowstone on the west side and near the
Missouri consisting of an immense pile of elk horns, covering an
area of about an acre of ground, and in height about 30 feet. We
have frequently inquired of these and the surrounding nations as
to its origin, but it was raised previous to the knowledge or even
tradition of any tribe now living in these parts. From the state of
decay the horns are in it must be very ancient.
DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 399
Names axd Events in History. — There is no great event in the
history of the Assiniboin that gives them cause to rejoice. True,
they have occasionally gained a battle, but at other times have lost
greatly by wars. Upon the whole they have had the worst of it ; at
least they, being a smaller nation than the Blackfeet and Sioux (their
enemies) have felt the loss more severely. The principal calamity
that first overtook them, and by which they suffered greatly, was the
smallpox in 1780. (See Mackenzie's travels and other authors.)
On this occasion they lost about 300 lodges of their people, and it is
to this day mentioned by them as their greatest first misfortune. In
the spring of 1838 this disease was again communicated to them, be-
ing brought up the Missouri by a steamboat, and although every
precaution had been used, the boat cleansed, and no appearance of
disease for a long time aboard, yet it in some way broke out among
the Indians, beginning with the Sioux tribes and ending with the
Blackfeet. Being an eyewitness to this, we can with certainty give
an account of its ravages. When the disease first appeared in Fort
Union we did everything in our power to prevent the Indians from
coming to it. trading with them a considerable distance out in the
prairie and representing to them the danger of going near the infec-
tion. All efforts of the kind, however, proved unavailing, for they
would not listen, and 250 lodges contracted the disease at one time,
who in the course of the summer and fall were reduced to 65 men,
young and old, or about 30 lodges in all. Other bands coming from
time to time caught the infection and remained at the fort, where
the dead were daily thrown into the river by cartloads. The disease
was very virulent, most of the Indians dying through delirium and
hemorrhage from the mouth and ears before any spots appeared.
Some killed themselves.
On one occasion an Indian near the fort after losing his favorite
child deliberately killed his wife, his two remaining children, his
horses and dogs, and then blew his own brains out. In all this the
Indians behaved extremely well toward the whites, although aware
they brought the disease among them, yet nothing in the way of
revenge took place, either at the time or afterwards. Being obliged
to be all the time with them, helping as much as possible to save a
few, they had plenty of opportunities should they have wished to
do damage. Every kind of treatment appeared to be of no avail,
and they continued dying until near the ensuing spring, when the
disease, having spent itself, ceased. The result was that out of
1,000 lodges and upward of the Assiniboin then in existence but
400 lodges or less remained, and even these but thinly peopled.
Relationship by blood or adoption was nearly annihilated, all prop-
erty lost or sacrificed, and a few very young and very old left to
400 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ann. 46
mourn the loss. Most of the principal men having died, it took years
to recover from the shock. Young men had to grow up, new leaders
to be developed, remnants of bands to be gathered together, property
to be had — in fact, under all these adverse circumstances, so slow
has been the increase that during the interim of 17 years but 100
lodges have accumulated. In times like this no leader can be ef-
fective. All counsel was rejected; their chiefs and divining men
shared the fate of the others. With the Mandan the disease was even
more destructive. Before it they numbered 600 warriors and in-
habited two large villages where the Arikara are now stationed,
and when the disease ceased about 30 men remained, from wliich
remnant have since sprung about 25 lodges. All this time an Assini-
boin chief named The Gauche, or by the Indians " He wlio holds
the knife," was the princijjal man in the band which bore his name,
consisting of 250 lodges.
These died in greater proportion than the others and after the
disease had disappeared the old chief found himself at the head of
about 60 fighting men. The Gauche was a very old man ancf had
had the smallpox in the north; he was also famed in their annals
as a leader and divining man. He had been very successful in his
expeditions against the Blackfeet, and by the use of poisons admin-
istered occasionally to his people, while predicting their death, he
had inspired in all the fear of a sorcerer. His life contains a history
which our limits do not admit of describing, although well known,
singular, interesting, and authentic. On this occasion he under-
stood that the Mandan were rendered totally helpless by the effects
of the smallpox, and conceived the idea of taking their village and in
a measure retrieving his losses by the horses and other property of
these Indians. Gathering together the remnant of his band, about 50
men, he proceeded thither. The writer saw him pass with the pipe
of peace to lull suspicion, in order to enter their village in a friendly
way, and then at a given signal each one with knife in hand to rush
upon and destroy the unsuspecting friends. The whole was well
planned, managed, and kept secret, and it would have succeeded but
for an occurrence of which tlie Assiniboin was not then aware. The
Arikara, a tolerably numerous people, having left the Missouri, had
been for years residing on the Platte River, and having previously
had the smallpox did not contract the disease to any extent. About
the same time The Gauche was on his way to the Mandan, they re-
turned suddenly from the Platte and took possession of their village
a short distance from the Mandan. Now the Arikara numbered
about 500 men, all deadly enemies to the Assiniboin, so that when the
latter presented their pipe of peace the ceremonies were interrupted
by an attack of the Arikara. The Assiniboin were routed, and
about 20 of them killed.
DENiG] THE ASSINIBOIN 401
The old chief, as usual, escaped, though his day of power was over.
Shortly afterwards he predicted the day and hour of his own death
at the fort- — days beforehand, without any appearance of disease
or approaching dissolution, and the writer with other gentlemen at
the fort saw the same fulfilled to the letter. The conclusion was that
he took poison, which he was long supposed to have received from
the whites in the north and kept a dose for the fullness of time.
This man had more renown than any other leader spoken of, al-
though several have done gallant actions. His success may be attrib-
uted to great cunning and the large force he always headed, together
with the power his fetishes gave him over his fellows, who blindly
followed his instructions and fought desperately under his prophecies,
though his life shows the anomaly of a great leader being entirely
destitute of every particle of personal intrepidity. Many other
events have happened which form data in their history; indeed it is
composed of reference to certain remarkable occurrences, such as the
year of the smallpox, year of the deep snow, year of massacre of 30
lodges of Blackfeet, year of great rise of waters, and other natural
phenomena.
Present Rulers and Condition. — Their present ruling chief is
Man-to-was-ko, or the Crazy Bear, made chief by Colonel Mitchell,
Commissioner of the United States, at the Laramie treaty in 1851.
The choice could not have been better. The Crazy Bear has always
been a respectable and brave man, greatly elevated above all the rest
in intelligence but not ranking with some in military exploits, having
never been a great warrior, though on some small occasions he has
shown an utter contempt of death before his enemies. He is a mild,
politic man, looking after his peoples interest, and viewing with a
jealous eye anything inconsistent with them. Even when a very
young man his opinions were always honored with a hearing in
council, and he now bears his honors with great credit to himself
and service to his people, endeavoring to carry out to the letter the
stipulations of the treaty to which he is a party.
Among the princii^al soldiers and war captains may be mentioned
To-ka'-ke-a-na, or the " First Who Flies." This man is a son of the
old chief, Wah-he Muzza, or " Iron Arrowpoint," mentioned before.
The whole of that old man's numerous family have been, and those
living still are, desperate men, proud and overbearing with their
people, though good to the whites. From the eldest, named " The
Sight," who visited Washington City by General Jackson's orders, to
the one now mentioned, five in number have been killed by their own
people in personal cjuarrels.
The one now s^Doken of has frequently led parties to battle and
showed such a recklessness of danger that his name stands high as a
402 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ann. 46
warrior; has also killed two of his own people who wei'e concerned
in the murder of his brothers; was at the Laramie treaty and since
behaves himself with great moderation; is one of the Crazy Bear's
principal soldiers and supports; and should the Bear die would
undoubtedly take his place as chief of the tribe.
Wa-ke-un-to, or the Blue Thunder, is another warrior and
partisan in a band of 200 lodges, is not over 25 years of age, but has
raised himself to distinction by going to war alone on the Sioux and
bringing home scalps and horses; he has also headed several war
excursions with great success and is generally liked by his own
people.
Wo'-a-see'-chah, or Bad Animal, known to traders by the name of
Le Serpent, is a war leader and chief of Les Gens des Canots Band,
the same 200 lodges of which Blue Thunder is one of the warriors
and camp soldiers. I believe he has never killed many enemies but
has murdered in quarrels two of his own people, is considered a sensi-
ble man, very friendly to the whites, judicious in his government of
his band, and also is a person whom it is not desirable to aggravate
too much. Me-nah (The Knife), A-wah-min-ne-o-min-ne (The
Whirlwind), Ish-ta-o-ghe-nah (Gray Eyes), He-boom-an-doo (La
Poudriere), and others are soldiers and warriors whose histories are
known to us and would present the usual features of savage life
and warfare.
The Assiniboin speak but one dialect, being radically the same as
the Sioux; no other is incorporated in it, though some few can in
addition speak Cree and others of the northern bands of Blackfeet,
but no more than one interpreter is required in transacting any busi-
ness with each or all of them. A person who can speak the Sioux
language well could interpret for the Assiniboin, or vice versa.
There are manj' elderly persons capable of stating their traditions
and willing to impart any information they are in possession of
regarding their history ; but what is heard from them in this respect
is so mingled with fable and superstition as seldom to admit of its
serving as a basis for truth or knowledge or for a correct repre-
sentation of their past condition. They do not exhibit any chain of
connected facts; and though these oral tales have been preserved
entire, transmitted in their original form through successive gen-
erations, and may possibly have been the belief of their ancestors, yet
at the present day are regarded more as a source of amusement than
a medium of instruction or means of perpetuating their history. Too
much error has been the result of depending for knowledge on these
traditions by people who only understand them in their literal sense
or have been badly interpreted. All facts among the nations with
whom we profess an intimate acquaintance and minute knowledge
DEXIG] THE ASSINIBOIX 403
farther than a century back are involved in obscurity, mingled with
fable, or embodied in their superstitions.
The time when the tribe reached its present location was from 1804
to 1825, when the most of them might be considered as established
on the waters of the Missouri, the boundaries of which have been
pointed out, though in 1839. 60 lodges of Assiniboin came over from
the British northern possessions and joined those of the Missouri,
since which time thej' have resided together.
IxTERTKiBAL Raxk axd RELATIONS. — As to the qucstioH, what rank
and relationship does the tribe bear to other tribes, we are not aware
of any political scale of superiority or inferiority existing among any
of the tribes along the Missouri ; neitlier do their traditions point out
or assign any such particular position to each other. Being well
acquainted with the manners and customs of tlie Sioux, the Arikara,
the Mandan, the Gros Ventres, the Crow, the Assiniboin, the Cree, and
the Blackfeet tribes we can safely say that no such distinction exists
that would receive the sanction of all parties. There is, however,
this: Each nation has vanity enough to think itself superior to its
neighbors, but all think the same, and the more ignorant they are the
more obstinately they adliere to their own opinions. All tribes are
pretty much independent of one another in their thoughts and
actions, and, indeed witli the exception of tlie Gros Ventres, the
Mandan and the Arikara, who are stationary and live in a manner
together, neighboring tribes usually are completely in the dark re-
garding one another's government, not even knowing the names of
the principal cliiefs and warriors unless told them or recognizing
them when pointed out. In all the above-mentioned tribes there is
no such thing as pretensions to original rank. Rank is the growth of
the present, as often acquired as lost. The greatest chief any of these
tribes ever produced would become a mere toy, a butt, a ridicule, in a
few days after he lost his eyes or sense of sight.
Neither has affinity of blood in this sense anything to do with rank
as to succession. If the son for want of bravei-y or other qualifica-
tions can not equal or follow the steps of his father chief, he is noth-
ing more tiian an ordinary Indian. There are consequently no dis-
cordant pretensions to oi-iginal ranlc, though it may be a matter of
dispute which of two or three cliiefs ranks at present the highest,
and in this case it would be immediately decided in council by the
principal men. In fact the rank or standing of each Indian, be he
chief or warrior, is so well known, and his character so well judged
by the vox populi that he talces his place spontaneously. A higher
step than his acts and past conduct confer, imprudently taken, would
have the effect of injuring him in their eyes as a leader. Every chief,
warrior, or brave carves his own way to fame, and if recognized as
404 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOUKI [ETH. ANX. 46
one by the general voice becomes popular and is supported ; if not, he
mixes with hundreds of others who are in the same situation, waiting
an opportunity to rise. There is no relative rank among tribes bear-
ing the name of uncle, grandfather, etc. The names of the different
bands among themselves or the surrounding tribes have no such sig-
nification. There are, of course, affinities of blood and relationship
among the Indians as well as among whites. People have their
fathers, uncles, grandfathers, brothers-in-law, etc., but this personal
or family relationship has nothing to do with the clanship, nor has
it any bearing on other tribes. As to the relations above alluded to
we will have occasion to refer to them under the head of tribal
organization and government. Among eastern or southern tribes
such distinctions may exist, but we can vouch they have no name nor
interest in all the tribes mentioned in the beginning of this answer.
To pi'event misunderstanding, it should be observed that when we
speak of a tribe we mean the whole group who speak that language.
Different tribes are different gi'oups. Portions of these groups or
tribes are called gentes, and portions or societies of these gentes are
designated as subgentes, and the next or most minute subdivision of
gentes would be into families.
" Peaces " are made between wild tribes by the ceremony of smok-
ing and exchanging presents of horses and other property ; sometimes
women. The advantages and disadvantages are well calculated on
both sides before overtures for peace are made. It is a question of
loss and gain and often takes years to accomplish. The Crows, a rich
nation, five years ago, through the writer as the medium made peace
with the Assiniboin after half a century of bloody warfare. "Why?
The Crows being a rich nation and the Assiniboin poor, how could
the former gain? The points the Crows gained were these: First,
liberty to hunt in the Assiniboin country unmolested and secure from
the Blackfeet; second, two enemies less to contend with and from
whom they need not guard their numerous herds of horses; third,
the privilege of passing through the Assiniboin country to the Gros
Ventres village in quest of corn. Now for the other party. The Crows
having large herds of horses and the Assiniboin but few, the former
give them a good many every year to preserve the jseace. The Crows
winter with the Assiniboin, run buffalo with their own horses, and
give the latter plenty of meat and skins without the trouble of killing
it. The Crows are superior warriors and the others have enough to
contend with the Blackfeet. Again, one enemy less, and jointly the
numerical force is so augmented as to make them formidable to all
surrounding tribes, while separately they would prey upon each
other. It is in this case evident the peace must last, there being suffi-
cient inducements on both sides to keep it, although upon the whole
DBNio] THE ASSINIBOIN 405
any of their "peaces" are liable to sudden and violent intei'ruptions
and are not to be depended upon.
Magnitude and Eesources of Territory a Cause of the Muitipu-
CATiON OF Tribes. — There can be no doubt that magnitude and re-
sources of territory are the principal causes of an increase of popula-
tion. All roving tribes live by hunting, and scarcity of animals
produces distress, famine, disease, and danger by forcing them to
hunt in countries occupied by their enemies, when game is not found
in their own. Such a state of things happened in this district in
1841, when during a total disappearance of buffalo and other game
some of the Assiniboin and Cree were under the necessitj' of eating
their own children, of leaving others to perish, and many men and
women died from fatigue and exhaustion. Although the above posi-
tion is evident, yet we do not see how it could multipW tribes, much
less dialects. A large territory with much game might induce i^or-
tions of other tribes not having these advantages to migrate, make
peace with the residing nation, and perhaps increase in a greater
ratio than they otherwise would have done, but the language would
remain the same, neither would it produce a separate tribe, but only
a portion of the tribe who migrated.
The Gros Ventres of the Prairie were once Arapaho and lived on
the Arkansas. They have for a century past resided with the Black-
feet, yet have preserved their own language. True, by these means
they learn to speak each other's language, but thejr do not commingle
and make a separate dialect of the two. The Assiniboin from the
Sioux, the Cree from the Chippewa, the Crows from the Gros Ventres
are three other cases of separation, and in each the language is so
well ijreserved that they understand without any difficulty the people
whence they emanated. The causes of these sepai'ations, whether
feuds, family discords, or in quest of better hunting grounds, does
not now appear. Most probably it was dissatisfaction of some sort.
From all appearances we may reasonably expect to see ere long a
portion of the Sioux occupying the large disputed territory south
of the Missouri and along the Yellowstone, as game is becoming
scarce in their cUstrict since white emigration through it and Indians
are thronging there from St. Peters and elsewhere.
The Sioux regard the Mississippi as once their home, and it is very
certain that nation came from thence, also the Cree and Assiniboin,
and perhai^s others. It does not appear that the track of migration
pursued any direct course. From certain facts, similitude of lan-
guage and customs, it would seem some nations traveled from south
to north or north\Aest, such as the Gros Ventres of the Piairie who
were once Arapaho. The Arikara speak the same as the Pawnee
and must have migrated westward. The Blackf eet moved from north
406 TKIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ann. 46
to southwest, and the Crows, Cree, and Assiniboin west and north. It
is reasonable to l^elieve they spread out over these immense plains
from all points and at different times as circumstances favored or
forced them. The habits of the prairie Indian differ essentially
from the Indian of the forest, and those of stationary and cultivating
habits from both. It is impossible for us now to state with any
degree of certainty the time of their first location on these plains,
or to point out any one general course of emigration pursued by
them.
Geography
Figure or the Globe. — It can not be expected that these Indians
who are in a complete savage and unenlightened state should have
any knowledge of the configuration of the globe or of its natural
divisions. They know what a small lake or small island is and have
names for the same as they are to be met with through their country.
They think the earth to be a great plain bounded by the Rocky
Mountains on one side and the sea on the other, but have no idea
of its extent nor of any other lands except those they are acquainted
with. Although told frequently, they can not realize extent of lands
in any great measure, and without troubling themselves to think or
inquire are content with believing there are few lands better or
larger than their own. It is not in their nature to acknowledge in-
feriority, which would follow were they convinced of the extent of
the territory and power of the whites. Of the sea they have a vague
idea from information offered them by the traders, and would not
believe there is such a body of water had not the same received a
sort of sanction through the Cree and Chippewa, some of whom,
having seen Lake Superior, represent it as the ocean.
Local Features of the Habitat. — The chief rivers running
through the Assiniboin country are, first, the Missouri, whicii is so
well known as to need no descrij^tion here. The next is Milk River,
on the northwest boundary, a very long and narrow stream ; heads in
some of the spurs of the Rocky Mountains east of the Missouri and
lakes on the plains, runs a southwest course, and empties into the
Missouri about 100 miles above the Yellowstone. Its bed is about
200 yards wide at the mouth, though the waters seldom occupy more
than one-third of that s^jace, except during the spring thaw, when,
for a week or two, it fills the whole bed ; is f ordable on horseback all
the year except at the time above alluded to and when swollen by
continuous rains.
Riviere aux Tremble, or Quaking Aspen River, empties into the
Missouri about 50 miles below Milk River, is about half the length
and breadth of the others, and heads in the range of hills constituting
the divide, called " Les Montaignes des Bois." It is f ordable at all
DENia]
THE ASSINIBOIN 407
times except during spring freshets and wlien swollen by rain.
Neither of these streams is navigable by any craft larger than a
wooden canoe except at the high stages of water above referred to,
and then navigation would be difficult and dangerous owing to float-
ing ice and driftwood. There are no rapids or falls in either of
them.
Several creeks fall into the Missouri below the point on the east
side called Big Muddy, Little Muddy, Knife River, etc., all of which
contain but little water and are of no consequence.
Wliite Earth River, the last, is about 100 miles in length and at
the mouth a little more than 100 yards wide, contains but little
water, always fordable, and not navigable by anything, empties into
the Missouri near the commencement of the Great Bend. None of
these rivers being navigable except the Missouri, goods are only
landed at the following points along that river, viz : Fort Pierre
(Sioux), mouth of the Teton River; Fort Clarke (Ankara) at their
village; Fort Berthold (Gros Ventres village) ; Fort Union (Assini-
boin), mouth of Yellowstone. Steamboats have gone up the Mis-
souri as high as the mouth of Milk River, but heretofore goods for
Fort Benton (Blackfeet), near the mouth of Maria River, have been
transported by keel boats from Fort Union.
We know of no large navigable lakes in this district, though along
the northern boundary there are many small ones, or rather large
ponds of water, without any river running through them or visible
outlet, being fed by snows, rain, and .springs, and diminished by
evaporation and saturation. Lakes of this kind are to be met with
in many places on the plains and differ in size from 100 yards to 2
or 3 miles or even more in circumference, are not wooded, and con-
tain tolerably good water. Small springs are also common, most of
them having a mineral taste, though none are large enough to afford
water power.
SuEFACE OF THE CouNTRT. — The wliolc couutry occupied by the
Assiniboin is one great plain, hills and timber only occurring where
rivers run, in the valleys of which good land for cultivation is found,
but the general feature appears to be sterile as regards arable land,
producing, however, grasses of different kinds, some of which are
very nutritious, and particularly adapted to raising horses, cattle,
and sheep. The prairies may be said to be interminable and destitute
of the least particle of timber except along the banks of the few
streams before mentioned, and even these but thinly wooded. Water,
however, can always be found in the small lakes and rivers spoken
of. The Assiniboin do not cultivate the soil in any way, though the
Gros Ventres and Arikara raise corn and pumpkins to some extent on
the Missouri bottoms. By experiments made at or near Fort Union,
408 TEIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [BTH. ANN. 46
we find that oats, potatoes, corn, and all garden vegetables grow
well if the season be favorable. The soil, being light and sandy,
requires frequent rains to produce good crops, which happens about
one year in three; the others fail from drought and destruction by
grasshoppers, bugs, and other insects. The natural productions of
the country are few and such as no one but an Indian could relish.
A wild turnip called by them teep-see-na, and by the French pomme
blanche, when boiled is eatable, is found in quantity everywhere on
the plains, will sustain life alone for a great length of time either
cooked or in its raw state, can be dried and preserved for years, or
pidverized and made into passable bread.
Wild rhubarb is found and eaten either raw or cooked. It has
ratlier a pleasant sweetish taste. Artichokes grow in quantites near
marshes. Chokecherries, bullberries, service berries, buds of the
wild rose, red jDlums, and sour grapes are the principal fruits and
are greatly sought after by the Indians, preserved, dried, cooked, and
eaten in various ways, and considered by tliem great luxuries. Wild
hops are in abundance which possess all the properties of the culti-
vated hojD. These are all of any note the country produces.
Facilities for Grazixg. — These Indians raise no stock of any
kind, though judging from that raised at Fort Union it is one of the
best grazing countries in the world. The supply of grasses of spon-
taneous growth is inexhaustible and very nutritious. The only diffi-
culty is the severe cold winter and depth of snow, though if animals
were provided for and housed during the severe cold we know that
a hardier and better stock can be raised than in the States. As yet,
liowever, no market being open for surplus stock and but few raised
for the use of the fort, our attention has not been much directed to
that business, but have no hesitation in advancing the opinion that
horses, horned cattle, and sheep would thrive and increase well with
proper care. We are not able to say whether water could at all
times be had by digging on the high prairie and in the absence of
sjirings or creeks, never having tried the experiment, though the
country abounds in small lakes, cool springs, and creeks where good
localities for grazing jDurposes could always be chosen. In the
winter animals appear to want very little water and generally eat
snow in its place.
Effects of Firing the Prairies. — ^We presume thei-e must be
some mistake that any of the tribes residing on tlie plains set them
on fire to facilitate the purposes of hunting. It has the contrary
effect, driving the game out of their own country into that of their
neighbors. Buffalo may pass through a burnt country covered with
snow, but can not remain, and travel until they meet with suitable
grazing. Consequently tlie greatest precautions are used by both
Indians and whites to prevent their taking fire in the fall, when the
OENIO] THE ASSINIBOIN 409
grass is dry (the only time it will burn), and the most severe pen-
alties short of death are imposed on any person, either white or red,
who even by accident sets the prairie on fire. A good thrashing with
bows and sometimes tomahawking is in store for the poor traveler
who has been so forgetful as not to put out his camp fires and they
extend to the i^lains. These fires are made mostly by returning war
parties, either with the view of driving the buffalo out of their
enemy's country or as signals to their own people of success in their
exiDedition, though sometimes they originate in accident or petty
malice of individuals. With regard to its injuring the soil it has no
such effects ; on the contrary, the next crop of grass is more beautiful
than the other, as the undergrowth and briars are by that means
destroyed. The same, unfortunately, is not the case with the timber.
There are no forests on the plains to burn, though where the fire
passes through the bottoms of the Missouri it consumes and kills
great quantities of timber, which dries and decays and is only re-
placed in time by younger saplings. Fruit bushes are also destroyed,
though they recover its effects in three or four years.
Waste Lands. — In this section there are no deserts or barren land
of any extent ; though there are some marshes, pools, and swamps
which, however, are not so close together or extensive as to form
any formidable obstruction to roads. Even if they could not be
drained or otherwise disposed of, they could be left on either side
of the way. Neither do these appear to affect the health of any of
the Indians more than being the cause of producing hosts of mos-
quitoes, which are very annoying to man and beast.
Effects of Volcanic Action. — We are not aware of any remark-
able appearances of this kind,^ neither are there to be found exten-
sive sand plains or other tracts entirely destitute of herbage. The
cactus is found everywhere, but not in such quantity as to destroy
herbage or be a hindrance to animals traveling. A mile or two
may occasionally be found where herbage is comparatively scarce.
Still, even in these places there is sufficient for animals for a short
lime.
Saline Productions. — ^We do not feel ourselves competent to state
the properties of the mineral springs so common throughout all
this country. Some of them no doubt contain Glauber salt, as they
operate as a violent cathartic; others have the taste qf copper, sul-
phur, etc. What the country would produce in the way of gypsum,
saltpeter, etc., we can not say, never having witnessed any geological
or mineral researches and being personally completely uninformed
regarding this branch of science.
' There are portions of pumice stone and other things occasionally picked up that hava
undergone volcanic action ; also burning tiills, but no eruptions.
88253°-
410 TKIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [bth. ann. 46
Coal and Mineral Products. — Dr. J. Evans, who lately traveled
through this counti-y, can enlighten yon on this subject. As for us,
we must plead unadulterated ignorance.
Climate
The climate is pure and dry and perhaps the healthiest in the
world. In the months of May and June, when east winds prevail,
much rain falls, but during the rest of summer and fall the season
is generally dry and moderately warm, except a short time in July
and August, when intensely hot. There are occasionally severe thun-
derstorms accompanied by rain or hail ; not more, however, than three
or four in a summer, and these in a few hours swell the smallest
streams so as to overflow their banks, but with the ceasing of the rain
they fall as suddenly as they rise, and do no damage, as there are
neither crops nor fences to injure. Tornadoes we have never seen
here, although they do happen on the Missouri far below this place.
Severe gales are occasionally met with, lasting but a few minutes.
With regard to temjierature and other natural phenomena I refer
you to the accompanying tables.
Wild Animals
The most numerous and useful animal in this country is unques-
tionably the buffalo, both as regards the sustenance of all the Indians
and gain of the traders. Any important decrease of this animal
would have the effect of leaving the Indians without traders, no re-
turns of smaller skins being sufficient to pay the enormous expense
of bringing supplies so far and employing such a number of people.
Buffalo are very numerous, and we do not, after 20 years' experience,
find that they decrease in this quarter, although upward of 150,000
are killed annually throughout the extent of our trade, without taking
into consideration those swamped, drowned, calves frozen to death,
destroyed by wolves, or in embryo, etc. It j'et would appear that
their increase is still greater than their destruction, as during last
winter (1852-53) there were more found in this quarter, and indeed
in the whole extent of our trade, than liad been seen for many years
before.
The buffalo is the Indian's whole dependence. It serves him for
all his purposes — meat, clothing and lodging, powder homs, bow-
strings, thread and hair to make saddles. In the winter season the
hides are dressed, made into robes and traded to whites, by which
means they are able to buy all their necessaries and even some lux-
uries. Robes are worth about $3 each, and although the number
sent to market is great, yet the high price paid for them to Indians
and the danger of transportation is such that fortunes are more
denig]
THE ASSINIBOIN 411
easily and often lost than made at the business. Beaver were for-
merly numerous and valuable, therefore much hunted by whites and
Indians, but of late years the price of that fur being greatly reduced,
and the danger of hunting considerable, does not induce either whites
or Indians to hunt them. This animal has been trapped and killed
to such an extent as to threaten their entire extinction, though for
the last 10 or 12 years, since beaver trapping by large bodies of men
has been abandoned, they have greatly increased, and are now to be
found tolerably plentiful in all the small streams and in the Missouri
and Yellowstone. These Indians do not and never did trap them
much; though the Crow and the Cree still make good beaver hunts,
they do not rely much on this either as a source of profit or food.
Elk, deer, bighorn, and antelope are numerous and afford a means
of living and profit to the Indians although they are not hunted to
any extent except in a great scarcity of buffalo. From this circum-
stance they do not diminish and are found now in much the same
numbers as 20 years back.
Wolves are very plentiful and of three kinds, the large white wolf,
the large grayback wolf, and the small prairie wolf, all a good deal
hunted and many killed, though they continue to increase. They fol-
low the buffalo in large bands, waiting an opportunity to pounce upon
one that has been wounded or mired. They also destroy a great many
small calves in the month of May when they are brought forth. The
skins of the larger kind are worth 70 cents to $1 each; the smaller
about 50 cents each.
Red and gray foxes, hares, badgers, skunks, wild cats, otters, er-
mines, and muskrats are found and killed when opportunity offers.
Of all these the red fox appears to be the only one that has diminished
in numbers. We are not aware that any animals have disappeared
altogether, nor of any perceptible decrease of any except the beaver
and red fox. The Indians kill onh^ as many buffalo as are wanted
for meat and hides. Taking onlj- as manj^ hides as their women can
dress, they do not destroy them wantonly to any extent ; consequently
the destruction is limited, and that not being equivalent to the in-
crease, but little diminution, if any, is perceptible, and the trade as
long as this is the case can not have the effect of exterminating them.
It is different as regards the beaver and fox. Their skins require no
labor except drying, and being slower to increase must of course be
the first to disappear if hunted. Grizzly bears are tolerably numer-
ous on the Missouri and Yellowstone and are not hunted often, al-
though killed occasionally. The animal being ferocious is not much
sought after by the Indians.
Ancient Bones and TRAornoNS of the Monster Era. — The In-
dians know from bones found that such animals existed and were of
412 TEIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ANN. 40
immense size, but their traditions never make mention of the living
animal. To these bones, etc., they assign the general name of Wan-
wan-kah, which is a creature of their own imagination, half spirit,
half animal. Any whirlwind or great tempest would be attributed
to the movements of the Wan-wan-kah, also any other natural phe-
nomenon. Many stories are told of its actions, but all are fabulous,
although they profess to believe in the existence of its powers, some
even stating they have seen it crossing the Missouri in the form of a
large fish covering half the breadth of that river."
Animals Used as Armorial Marks. — These armorial marks or
symbols, such as the eagle, owl, bear, serpent, etc., do not represent
any tribal organization but kinship occasionally. Neither do they
refer to any traditions of any early date, but are insignia adopted
by themselves as their medicine or charm. Most Indians have a
charm of this kind, either in consequence of some dream or of an idea
that the figure has some effect in carrying out his views regarding
war, the chase, or the health of his family. These are assumed for
his own purposes, whether real or imaginary, to operate on his
own actions or to influence those of other Indians. To these tangi-
ble objects, after Wakofida, who is a spirit, they address their
prayers and invocations. Neither do these symbols affect them re-
garding the killing of the same animals on all occasions, though after
he has killed it he will smoke and propitiate [the spirit of] the
dead carcass, and even offer the head small sacrifices of tobacco
and provisions.
The Horse
Era of the Importation of the Horse. — ^When the horse was first
introduced among them does not appear by any of the traditions of
these ignorant people. The name of the horse in Assiniboin is
shunga (dog) tunga (large), i. e., large dog. Among the Sioux it
is named shunka (dog) wakan (divining), i. e., divining dog, which
would only prove that the dog was anterior to the horse, inas-
much as they were obliged to make a name for the strange animal
resembling some known object with which it could be afterwards
compared.
PiCTOGRAPHS
Charts on Bark. — Their drawings of maps and sections of coun-
try are in execution miserable to us but explanatory among them-
selves. Most Indians can carve on a tree, or paint, who they are,
where going, whence come, how many men, horses, and guns the
party is composed of, whether they have killed enemies, or lost
friends, and, if so, how many, etc., and all Indians passing by, either
* See page 017 at the end of their oral tales.
DENiG] THE ASSINIBOIN 413
friends or foes, will have no difficulty in reading the same, though
such representations would be quite unintelligible to whites unless
instructed. (PI. 64.) Some Indians have good ideas of propor-
tion and can immediately arrive at the meaning of a picture, point-
ing out the objects in the background, though others can not distin-
guish the figure of a man from that of a horse, and as to their exe-
cutions of any drawing they are rude in the extreme. Where the
natural talent exists, however, there is no doubt they could be
instructed.
Antiquities
From the Sioux to the Blackfeet. inclusive, there is not in all
that country any mounds, teocalli, or appearances of former works
of defense bearing the character of forts or any other antique struc-
ture. Not a vestige or felic of anything that would form data, or be
an inducement to believe their grounds have ever been occupied by
any other than roving tribes of wild Indians; nor in the shape of
tools, ornaments, or missiles that would lead to any such inference.
We have not been moi-e fortunate in searching their traditions in the
hope of finding some clue relative to these things. They do not be-
lieve that any persons ever occupied their country except their own
people (Indians), and we can not say we have ever seen or heard
anything to justify any other conclusion regarding the extent of
territory mentioned.
The elk-horn mound, mentioned elsewhere, is evidently of re-
mote date and the work of Indians, but proves nothing sought by
these researches. It might be stated that although no antique vessels
of clay are found, yet the Arikara now, and as long as the wliites
have known them, have luanufactured tolerably good and well-
shaped clay vessels for cooking, wrought by hand without the aid of
any machinery, and baked in the fire. They are not glazed, are of a
graycolor, and willanswer for jjots, pans, etc., equally as well as those
made by the whites, standing well the action of fire and being as
strong as ordinary potter's ware. They also have the art of melting
beads of different colors and casting them in molds of clay for ear
and other ornaments of various shapes, some of which are very
ingeniously done. We have seen some in shape and size as drawn
in Plate 65, the groundwork blue, the figure white, the whole about
one-eighth inch thick, and presenting a uniform glazed surface.
Pipes
No antique pipes are found, but many and various are now made
by all Indians.
414 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOTJEI [eth. ann. 46
Vessels and Implements
The Arikara and Gros Ventres, who raise corn, have other vessels
as alluded to, but not the roving tribes, except the utensils furnished
by whites. None of these things denote anything more than a people
in the rudest state of nature, whose only boiling pot was once a
hollow stone, or the paunch of a buffalo in which meat can be boiled
and still is on occasions, by filling the paunch with water and casting
therein red-hot stones until the water attains a boiling point, after
which the stones are taken out, and one added occasionally to con-
tinue the heat, or the paunch suspended above a blaze at such a dis-
tance that the fire, though heating, does not touch it. Their spoons
are yet made of the horns of the bighorn and buffalo, wrought into
a good shape, some of which will hold half a gallon with ease.
These are dippers. Others for eating are made smaller of horn and
wood, yet large enough to suit their capacious mouths. (PI. 65.)
In all this and in everything they do, but one idea presents itself —
that of crude, untutored children of nature, who have never been
anything else.
The only ancient stone implements we have ever seen are the
hatchet, stone war club, arrow point, buffalo shoulder-blade ax, hump-
rib knife, and elk-horn bow, the shapes of which we have endeavored
to draw in Plate 66, and all of which, except the knife, can yet
occasionally be seen among them.
There is a total absence of anything antique, any shell, metal,
wampum, or other thing formerly possessed by inhabitants supposed
to have occupied this country. Neither are there any hieroglyphics
or traditions to denote anything of the kind.
Astronomy and Geologt
Earth and Its Motions. — ^Their knowledge on this subject is very
limited. They believe the earth to be a great plain containing per-
haps double the extent of country with which they are acquainted,
and that it is void of motion. They do not believe the stars are
inhabited by other people, but admit they may be abiding places of
ghosts or spirits of the departed. They are not fond of talking
about these things, neither do their opinions agi'ee, each man's story
differing materially from the other and aU showing extreme igno-
rance and superstition.
They believe that Wakofida created all things and this one idea
appears original and universal, further than which, however, they
are at a loss.
If they can not be made to comprehend the extent of the earth and
its laws of motion, etc., there is much less likelihood that they can
3
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNLIAL REPORT PLATE 65
;-])-(f/c irr, E(<, ('n..<'Hi<--,i
.^^u'.'r c<"a C id I lot.
Clin Crf.i )li(rrc.',^
CULINARY UTENSILS
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 66
CHARACTERISTIC IMPLEMENTS OF THE ASSINIBOINE
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 67
Gr>nih Root . Rccc-lu. ^rolr, E -p.' </, -c i, .
a. Comb root.
CaXsTad Hii.t -J<aii -]coo RacMu ,1^ Quenoui/Ze
b, Cat-tail.
DENiG] THE ASSINIBOIlSr 415
have any reasonable idea of the field of space or other creations
therein further than superstitious notions according to the fancy of
the individual.
The Sun. — They take the sun to be a large body of fire, making its
daily journey across the plains for the purpose of giving light and
heat to all, and admit it may be the residence of Wakonda;
consequently it is worshiped, venerated, smoked, and invocated on
all solemn occasions. We have often endeavored to exfjlain the diur-
nal revolution of the earth, representing the sun as stationary, but
always failed. They must first be brought to understand the attrac-
tions of cohesion and gravitation, for, as a sensible Indian stated on
one of these occasions, '* If at midnight we are all on the under side,
what is to hinder the Missouri from spilling out, and us from falling
off the earth? Flies, spiders, bii'ds. etc., have small claws by which
they adhere to the ceiling and other places, though man and water
have no such support."
The Sky. — Those who take the trouble to explain state the sky to
be a material mass of a blue color, the composition of which they do
not pretend to say, and think it has an oval or convex form, as
apparent to the eye, resting for its basis on the extreme boundaries
of the great plain, the earth. Hence their drawing, which is almost
the only form in which they could represent it. Stars are small suns
set therein, though they think they may be large bodies appearing
small by seeing through space. Space is the intervening distance
between earthly and heavenly bodies.
The Indians can not rationally account for an eclipse, supposing
it to be a cloud, hand, or some other thing shadowing the moon,
caused by Wakonda to intimate some great pending calamity.
Many are the prophecies on these occasions of war, pestilence, or
famine, and their predictions are often verified. Predicting an
eclipse does not appear to excite their wonder as much as would be
supposed. The writer predicted the eclipse of the moon on Decem-
ber 25, 1852, months before, but received no further credit than that
of having knowledge enough from books to find out it was to take
place.
Their year is composed of four man-ko'-cha or seasons, viz. wai-too
(spring), min-do-ka'-too (summer), pe-ti-e-too (autumn), wah-nee-
e-too (winter). These are only seasons and do not each contain a
certain number of days, but times — a growing time, a hot time, a
leaf-falling time, and a snow time. These four seasons make a year
which again becomes man-ko'-cha or the same as a season. This
is difiicult to explain. They count by the moon itself and its different
phases, not computing so many days to make a moon, nor so many
moons to a year.
416 TEIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOtJEI [eth. ANN. 46
They give each moon its name, beginning, say, with the March
moon whenever it appears either in February or March, when it
would be wee-che'-ish-ta-aza. sore eye moon; next would follow
Ta-pa'-ghe-na-ho-to, frog moon; next pe-tai-chin-cha'-ton, buffalo
calf moon; next wee-mush-tu. hot moon; next wah-pa'-ze-ze, yellow-
Jeaf moon; next wah-pa-ich-pa'-ah. leaf-falling moon; next yo-ka'-
wah-how-wee, first snow moon ; next we-cho-kun, middle moon ; next
om-hos-ka-sun-ka-koo, lengthening days moon's brother; and next
om-has-ka, lengthening of days moon. Their year has no beginning
nor end. They count and name the moons as they come, and these
names are also varied. Any annual remarkably known fact respect-
ing the season can be applied to the name of the same moon. Thus
the sore-eyed moon can be called the snow-melting moon, and the
falling-leaf moon be termed the moon when the buffaloes become fat.
These moons suffer no divisions of time except their phases, viz,
new moon, increasing moon (first quarter), round moon (full moon),
eaten moon (second quarter), half moon, dead moon (invisible).
Among themselves they have no division of time equal to a week,
although they are aware that we count by weeks, or divining days
(Sundays), and will often ask how many divining days (or Sun-
days) there are to a given period.
An Indian in counting any period less than a year will say 3
moons and a full (31/. moons), 4 moons and an eaten one
(4% moons), 6 moons and an increasing one (614 moons), etc.
These serve all his purposes and when wishing to be more minute
and exact he must notch each day on a stick. For a year or four
seasons thej' say a winter. A man may say " I am 40 winters old
and one summer." Yet sometimes the same man will say, " I am
40 seasons old." This is still right. He will also say that he is 80
seasons old, or 160 seasons old. All of these are cori'ect and under-
stood immediately, as in the one case you mentally take the half, and
in the other the quarter. This is often done among themselves, but
with whites they genei'ally name the winter only to designate the
year, yet man-ko-cha (season) is the right name for a year and
would be received as such by all the Assiniboin. The day is divided
into the following parts: hi-ak-kane (daj'light), umpa (morning),
wee-he-num-pa (sunrise), wee-wa-kan-too (forenoon), wi-cho-kun
(midday), we-coo-cha-nu (afternoon), we-coh-pa-ya (sunset), hhtie-
too (twilight), eoch-puz-za (dark), and haw-ha-pip-cho-kun (mid-
night). Anj' intermediate sjDace of time would be indicated by point-
ing the finger to the place the sun is supposed to have been at that
time. They know nothing of the division of hours and minutes,
yet some of the squaws living a long time in the fort can tell the
hour and minute by the clock.
DKNiG] THE ASSINIBOIN 417
The}' know that the minute hand makes the revolution of the dial
plate before it strikes and know the figures from 1 to 12; also that
each figure is five minutes apart, and will say it wants so many fives
to strike 9, or it has struck 10 and is 5 fives past. This they pick up
nearly of their own accord, which proves that some are susceptible
of intelligence and education. They know nothing of the solstices
nor have any period such as a cycle or century, neither do they believe
the world will come to an end or that their priests or any others have
the power to destroy or rebuild it.
They know and name the Xorth Star the same as we do — wa-se-a-
ure-chah-pe (north star) — and also know the Ui'sa Major, sometimes
calling it the " seven stars " and " the wagon." The}' are aware that
it makes its revolution around the polar star, pointing toward it, and
this is the secret of their traveling by night when there is no moon.
They call no other stars by name. The Milky Way is said to be
moch-pe-achan-ka-hoo (the backbone of the sky). It is known by
them to be composed of clusters of small stars, but they suppose it to
bear the same relative position to the arch of the heavens, and to be
as necessary to its support as the backbone of any animal to its body.
Meteors are falling stars which become extinguished as they fall.
They attract but little attention as their effects are never perceived.
Aurora borealis is believed to be clouds of fire or something the
same as electricity. Being very common and brilliant it creates
neither wonder nor inquiry.
The moon is not believed to influence men or vegetables nor to
have any other properties than to give light by night.^ They sup-
pose it to be made of some body wasting away during a given period.
Some say it is eaten up by a number of small animals (moles) and
Wakoiida makes a new one on the destruction of the old. They
know very well that all this is error and that the whites have
a better philosophy, but will not take the trouble or can not compre-
hend our views of the motions of heavenly bodies. Having nothing
else better explained to them, they adhere to their own ide'xs, which
are of the simplest and most primitive kind, and do not appear to
wish them superseded by others which they can not miderstand.
The same remark would apply to all their astronomical and geo-
graphical opinions. They have a correct knowledge of the cardinal
points, and honor the east as the first from the fact that the sun rises
there. The pipe is first presented to the east, then to the south, sup-
posed to be the power of the spirits of their departed friends, then
west, then north, and lastly to the earth as the great grandfather
of all. The amount of facts or real information they can give are
mentioned and as for further explanations, as observed before, they
= It is considered a fetish as a light at night and sacrificed to on this account.
418 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ANN. 46
do not delight to talk about these matters but appear to think them
sacred or forbidden fields through which their thoughts ought not
to roam. The subject affords no scope for reseairh unless a writer
is disposed to collect a number of fables, which would serve no pur-
po.se unless it be to develop their ignorance and superstition.
Future Life
Indian Paradise. — The Paradise of these Indians is in the south
in warm regions (not necessarily in the heavens, yet in some imagi-
nary country not belonging to earth), where perpetual summer,
abundance of game, handsome women, and, in short, every com-
fort awaits them; also the satisfaction of seeing their friends and
relatives. No quarrels, wars, disturbances, or bodily pain are al-
lowed to exist, but all live in perfect harmony. Departed spirits
have the power to revisit their native lands, manifest themselves to
their friends in dreams, and if they have been neglectful in crying
for or feasting them can trouble them with whistling sounds and
startling apparitions, many of which are said to be seen and heard
and are most religiously believed in by all. Consequently, the dead
are feasted (a long ceremony), smoked, sacrificed to, and invoked,
besides being cried for years after they are gone, perhaps as long
as any of the relatives are living. The heavenly bodies they think
may also be residences for spirits, but we think this idea is derived
from the whites. The other is the most ancient and original tradi-
tion, if not the only one, and is universally believed. This subject
will meet with further notice in the course of these pages.
Arithmetic
NuMEaiATiON. — All these prairie tribes count by decimals and in no other way.
The names of the digits are :
One — washe'nah. Six — sha'kpah.
Two-T-noom'pah. Seven — shakkowee.
Three — yam'ine. Eight — sha'kkando'gha.
Pour — topah. Nine — noo'mpehewo'dukkah.
Five — ta'ptah. Ten — wixchemenah.
After ten the word akkai, dropping the name of the ten, serves
until twenty, thus :
Eleven — akka'i washe. Seventeen — akkai shakko'.
Twelve — akkai noompah. Eighteen — akkai sha'kando'gba.
Thirteen — akkai yanimeue. Nineteen — akkai noonipehewoukkah.
Fourteen — akkai topah. Twent.v — wixche'inmene noompa ; i. e.
Fifteen — akkai zaptah. for twenty, literally two tens.
Sixteen — akkai sha'kpah.
From twenty to thirty the word " sum " or " more " (plus) is
added, thus:
denig]
THE ASSINIBOIN 419
21 — wixchemmena noompa sum washena (two tens plus one).
22 — wixchemmfna noompa sum noompa (two tens plus two).
23^wixchemmena noompa sum yammene (two tens plus three),
and so on up to thirty, which is three tens or wixchemmene yam'mene.
31 — wixchemmene yammene sum washena (three tens plus one).
32 — wixchemmene yammene sum noompa (three tens plus two) ;
the same as after twenty, and the same after each succeeding ten as far
as one hundred, thus —
40 — wixchemmene to'pah (four tens).
41 — wixchemmene topah sum washena (four tens plus one).
50 — wixchemmene zaptah (five tens).
51 — wixchemmene zaptah sum washena.
52 — wixchemmene zaptah sum noo'mpa.
60 — wixchemmene shakpa (six tens).
61 — wixchemmene shakpa sum washena.
62 — wixchemmene shakpa sum noompa.
70 — wixchemmene sliakko (seven tens).
71 — wixchemmene shakko sum washena (seven tens plus one).
72 — wixchemmene shakko sum noompa.
73 — wixchemmene shakko sum yammene.
74 — wixchemmene shakko sum topah, etc.
80 — wixchemmene shakandogha (eight tens).
90 — wixchemmene noomchewouka (nine tens).
100 — o-pah-wa-ghe. . -
101 — o-pah-wa-ghe sum washea.
110 — opahwaghe sum wixche'mmene.
160 — or)ahwaghe sum wixche'mmene shakpa.
161 — opahwaghe sum wixche'mmene shakpa sum washena.
170 — opahwaghe sum wixche'mmene shakko.
180 — opahwafihe sum wixche'mmene shakandogha.
190 — opahwaghe sum wixche'mmene noomchewouka.
200 — opahwaghe noomiia.
300 — opahwaghe yammene.
400 — opahwaghe topah.
500 — opahwaghe zaptah.
000 — opahwaghe shakpah.
700 — opahwaghe shakko.
800 — opahwaghe shakandogha.
900 — opahwaghe noomchewouka..
1 .000 — koke-to-pah-wa-ghe.
1,853 — koketopahwaghe sum opahwaghe shakandoga sum wixche'mmene
zaptah sum yammene.
2,000 — koketopahwaghe noompah.
3,000 — koketopahwaghe yammene.
4,000 — koketopahwaghe topah.
1 0,000 — koketi ipah waghe wixchemmene.
20,000 — koketopahwaghe wixchemmene noompa.
50,000 — koketopahwaghe wixchemmene zaptah.
100,000 — opahwaghe koketopahwaghe.
500,000 — opahwaghe zaptah koketopahwaghe.
600,000 — opahwaghe shakpah koketopahwaghe.
10,000,000 — opahwaghe wixchemmene koketopahwaghe.
420 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [bth. ann. 46
Although the computation could thus be carried on to a million
yet the Indian would not appreciate the number. We think that
after 5,000, or at the utmost 10,000, their ideas fail them; that is,
they can not realize in thought more than that amount, yet are able
mechanically to count it. This is evident, as they have no distinct
name for a million, but are obliged to call it ten hundred thousand,
and were they requested to go further would proceed eleven, twelve,
thirteen hundred thousand, etc., but not comprehending the great
number as a body. They can not multiply or subtract uneven sums
without the aid of small sticks or some other mark. Thus to add 40
to 60 would be done by the fingers, shutting down one for each suc-
ceeding ten, naming 70, 80, 90, 100. But to add 37 to 94 would re-
quire some time; most Indians would coinit 37 small sticks and
beginning with 94, lay one down for each succeeding number, nam-
ing the same until all were counted. Now tell them to add 76 to 47
and substract 28. In addition to the first process, and counting the
whole number of sticks, he would withdraw 28 and recount the
remainder. They are easily confused when counting and consider
the knowledge of figures one of the most astonishing things the
whites do.
In counting with the hand, an Indian invariably begins with the
little finger of the left, shutting it down forcibly with the thumb
of the right; when the five fingers are thus shut he commences on the
thumb of the right, shutting it with the left fist. When wishing to
telegraph by signs a certain number less than 10 he holds up that num-
ber of fingers, beginning with the little finger of the left hand and
keeping the others shut. Should the number be 7, then all the
fingers of the left and thumb and finger of the right would be ex-
tended, holding up his hands, the rest of the fingers closed. Tens are
counted by shutting and opening both hands; thus. 100 would be
indicated by shutting and opening both hands 10 times in succes-
sion. The number 7 has two names, shakkowee and enshand (the
odd number). They count fast enough in continuation from 1 to 100
but must not be interrupted.
Coin. — There is not now nor have we any reason to suppose tliere
ever has been among them any coin, shells, wampum, or any other
thing constituting a standard of exchange, neither are they ac-
quainted with American money. Were a guinea and a button pre-
■sented there is no question but the Indian would take the latter.
They barter their furs for goods which liave fixed prices, and are
well acquainted with these prices, as also of the value of their robes
and furs as a means of purchasiug merchandise.
Keeping Accounts. — The Indians themselves keep no accounts.
The manner in which accounts are kept by whites with them is as
follows. We are not exactly acquainted with the minor operations
THE ASSINIBOIN
421
in accounts kept by the Hudson's Bay Co. with the Cree and tlie
Chippewa, but from authentic information the following appears to
be their system. A plue is equal to 1 pound beaver skin or 3 shillings
sterling (say 67 cents) ; that is, 1 pound of the fur is worth at their
forts 67 cents in merchandise at their fixed prices. Therefore a large
beaver skin (2 pounds) is 2 plues; 6 muskrats, which are worth fi'om
10 to 121/2 cents each, is a plue; 1 wolf skin is counted a plue, being
equal in value to the standard 67 cents ; an otter skin is 2 jalues, a red-
fox 1, and so forth.
All skins and other articles of trade acquired by Indians are reck-
oned into plues by the trader and the Indians and the prices of
merchandise are computed in the same manner. On the Missouri the
plan is somewhat different, to explain which we annex the following
accounts copied from our books. It will be necessary to observe that
everything is brought to the standard of buffalo robes which have
an imaginary value of $3 each in the country.
The Crazy Bear, Assiniboin Chief
1851
Dec. 3
To 1-3 pt. white blanket
Dr.
3 robes,
2 robes.
1 robe
1 robe.
10 robes.
1 robe.
2 robes.
1 robe.
1852
Jan. 8
Feb. 10
Cr.
By 2 dressed cow skins
By 30 pounds dried meat
By 2 red fox skins
To % yard scarlet cloth
To2Hi pounds tobacco
To 1 horse
1 robe.
1 robe
1852
Jan 16
By 1 large elk skin, raw
By 4 robes
ToSknives
To 1 kettle. 2 gallon
To 100 loads ammunition
To balance on settlement
Balance forward
2 robes
1853
Feb. 10
21 robes.
21 robes.
2 robes.
Pictorial or other signs are not used in accounts, either by them or
the white people.
Elements of Figures. — A single stroke answers for 1 and each
additional stroke marks the additional number as far as 100. When
a stroke is made apart, the score is rubbed out and begun again.
There are no written nor marked records kept, either on graves or
otherwise, of ages or of events, scalps taken, or war expeditions.^"
Their transactions, or coups, as they are called in this country, are
pictured on their robes, lodges, and .shields, but these wearing out are
seldom renewed, particularly when the man becomes old. Also these
coups are recounted publicly by the performer on occasions appointed
for the purpose, which we shall notice hereafter, and moreover, are
'° It is not intended by this that they make no use of picture writing, but that these
records are not preserved. For further explanation see picture writing, p. 603. The de-
vices on their robe.s are not renewed after they have arrived at a very advanced age, or in
other words after their influence and standing has been destroyed by age and helplessness.
422 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ANN. 46
talked of often enough around their firesides. Ages are numbered
by particuhir events that took place at the time they could first recol-
lect, and afterwards by certain remarkable years from time to time.
Though no Indian can be sure as to his exact age, yet he will not vary
more than a year or two as to the time. The cross ( X ) is not used in
counting or for any other purpose, neither does the dot or full comma
signify a moon or anything else.
Medicine
General Practice. — They are careful of their sick relatives and
particularly so in regard to their cliildren or men in the prime of
life. Very aged persons do not, however, meet with such kindness
even from their own children, having become useless as a help in
camp. Besides being a burden in traveling and a bore and expense,
they are anxious to get rid of them and leave them on the plains to
die. It must, by no means, be inferred from this that the Indian
has no paternal feelings or affection ; from several instances of the
kind that have come under my observation I am assured it is their in-
ability to carry about and along with them aged people. These
Indians are poor, have but few horses and are constantly on the
move, in all weather, sometimes requiring flight; therefore every-
thing that might encumber in the way of baggage is thrown aside,
and among other lubbish is classed the aged of both sexes. I am
also told that it is often the desire of the aged to be left to die. To
keep up appearances with his people, the Indian will generally pay
a small doctor's bill for the relief of his aged relatives, but nothing
like the amount the same man would pay for his wife or child. To
explain their mode of practicing medicine, surgery, etc., we must
be somewhat prolix.
In every camp there are .several doctors, both men and women,
called by them divining men, who have the double reputation of
physicians and sorcerers. This is generally some old wretch who
is very ugly, of great experience, and who has art enough to induce
others to believe in his knowledge, and can drum, sing, and act his
part well.
The present great doctor and soothsayer is named " Bull's Dry
Bones," a very old man who is now with me. This man was once
sick and died while the camp was traveling. His friends packed and
tied him up in several envelopes of raw hides, blankets, etc., and,
after duly crying over him, placed the body in the fork of a tree
as is their custom. By some means, however, the man came to life
and after great difficulty worked himself out of his bonds, traveled
and overtook the camp some days after they had left him. He stated
to them that during his decease he had been in other worlds, seen
dbnig]
THE ASSINIBOIN 423
much, knew everything, past, present, and future, and from this
circumstance he has ever after been considered a great divining man
and prophet. We will now state how they proceed in case of sick-
ness. A child falls sick. The father or some other near relative
immediately sends a gun or a horse to the divining man to secure
his services. Sometimes smaller articles are sent, and the doctor,
thinking them beneath his notice, will not pay a visit until enough
is offered, which amount varies in proportion as the patient's rela-
tives are rich or poor. He then enters the lodge of the sick person
in his medical capacity. His instruments are a drum, a chi-chi-quoin,
or gourd rattle, and, perhaps, a horn cupping apparatus. He must
have (although not perceptible) some things concealed in his mouth
or about his person, as will presently appear, although they go
usually through their operations entirely naked (except the breech-
cloth) and not in a hideous costume as has been represented. The
doctor is accompanied by five or six others as old and ugly as him-
self, bearing drums, bells, rattles, and other noisy instruments.
All sing to the extent of their voices and make a terrible noise with
the instruments spoken of. The doctor slowly approaches the
patient, applying his mouth to his naked breast or belly, draws or
appears to draw therefrom by suction a worm, sometimes a bug, a
wolf hair, or even a small snake, making at the same time horrible
gestures, grunts, and grimaces. This object he displays to the
lookers-on. stating he has extracted the cause of the disease. This
operation is repeated several times with like results, and after he and
the accomjJanying band of music partake largely of a dog or other
feast provided for them they leave for the time. The whole per-
formance, with the music, incantations, jjreparations, and feast in-
cluded, would occupy perhaps from two to three hours and often the
whole night, if the performers are paid high. Frequently their
diseases are colic from eating unripe fruits and berries or over-
loading the stomach, which, of course, get well in a short time and
the credit is given to the doctor, each recovery aiding to raise his
reputation and enlarge his practice. But if the case is serious and
the i^atient gets worse, the doctor is then paid again and another visit
takes place. The forms are always somewhat similar, but on this
occasion, in addition to the full band of music and cupping with the
horn, besides the usual grimaces, noises, etc., the patient is made to
drink decoctions of roots or powders made by the doctor's of
pulverized roots, rattles of the rattlesnake, calcined bones, etc., the
properties of which he is entirely ignorant, and probably the small-
ness of the dose preventing them from doing any harm. This, with
the noise of the instruments and feast, concludes the second visit.
Sometimes the doctor performs alone and keeps up the drumming,
etc., all night. In this way by a repetition of visits, if the case is
424 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [ETn. ann. 46
of long duration, the whole of the property of the relatives of the
sick person falls to the doctor and his assistants, who are also slightly
paid for the music. And this is the cause of great individual dis-
tress and poverty, though the property given does not go out of the
nation, but only changes hands and is liable in like manner to revert
to others should the divining man fall sick. In case, after all, the
patient dies, it is then the doctor who is in danger, and runs great
risk of losing his life, by the parents or relatives of the deceased.
Indeed, being aware of this they generally abscond to other camps
when death approaches, and whatever property they leave behind
is taken from them. No later than last winter the writer paid an
Indian to prevent his killing the " Bull's Dry Bones " (doctor) wlio
the man said had poisoned his two children six years ago. But the
old doctor, although a humbug, is an innocent man and would harm
no one.
They have various forms of doctoring, in all of which the drum
forms a principal figure, and songs and incantations, all of which
are most religiously believed in by the Indians. Old women are
as often practitioners as old men and of as great celebrity. There
is also another reason why these Indians give away so much of their
property to the divining man. Independent of these payments
securing the doctor's services, they are considered as sacrifices ; that
is, the man makes himself poor with a view of propitiating the Great
Spirit.
Also it is considered and spoken of as a great honor to give away
large articles to the divining man, such as horses, guns, etc., and
goes to prove the affection with which they regard their sick rela-
tives. For a long time afterwards the giver will boast of his liberal-
ity in these respects and is also looked upon as a man with a " large
heart." We must, at the risk of not being believed, state that on
two particular occasions, and before witnesses, we have examined
the divining man's mouth, hands, and all his person, which was
entirely naked, with the view of discovering where these worms,
snakes, etc., were hidden, and that these examinations were made
without any previous intimations to him who, never having been
subject to examinations of the kind by Indians, was completely unpre-
pared for the trial, yet he acquiesced cheerfully, afterwards continued
his performance, and repeated it in our presence, drawing and
spitting out large worms, clots of blood, tufts of hair, skin, etc., too
large to be easily secreted, and leaving no visible mark on the
patient's body. The trick was well done and not yet known to any
of us.
Their knowledge of anatomy consists in being acquainted with the
larger bones and joints. They can set a broken arm or simple frac-
DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 425
ture tolerably well, and even replace a dislocated shoulder, which
they do by pulling: and outward pressure from the armpit, but this
knowledge is not confined to the divining man nor is it his business
more than any other who happens to be present. Most men of
middle age have witnessed so many accidents of the kind that they
can do this.
They are, however, unacquainted with the circulation of fhe blood
and with any judicious treatment of internal diseases, for all of
which they resort to incantations and drumming. They do, however,
indiscriminately use the vapor bath or sweat house for various
complaints. This construction is a small lodge thrown over a basket-
work of willows stuck in the ground and bent in an oval or round
form, the skins well pinned down and every aperture well closed.
The doctor after heating some large stones red hot and putting them
into the lodge enters with the patient, both entirely naked and taking
along a kettle of water and, as usual, his drum. The lodge is then
shut tight by the people on the outside. A brisk singing and drum-
ming is kept up in the lodge by the doctor, who at intervals throws
water on the stones and steam is raised. A violent heat and perspira-
tion takes place, which they endure as long as they can ; as soon as
the patient is taken out he is immersed in cold water, which in nine
cases out of ten results in his death. In this way the Crow Indians
lost nearly 200 persons three years since during a prevailing
influenza. The Mandan and Gros Ventres, however, being accustomed
to cold bathing from their youth, are said seldom to suffer any incon-
venience but often receive benefit from the vapor bath and immediate
cold immersion. They have no names for fevers, consumptions,
obstructions of the liver, etc., and can not explain further than by
pointing out that part of their body which is in a state of pain.
Indeed, in this climate, except consumption, rheumatism and
quinsy, diseases are extremely rare; and no febrile symptoms seen
except in cases of wounds ami parturition when puerperal fever often
occurs, and assuming a typhoid form is generally fatal. They are
also exempt from paralysis, toothache, and almost all the thousand
nervous complaints to which the whites are subject, among which
might be mentioned baldness or failure of eyesight from age. Their
materia medica is consequently in a very primitive state. They
have no medicine except some roots, some of which are known to
be good for the bite of the rattlesnake, frozen parts, and inflam-
matory wounds. The principal of these is the black root, called by
them the comb root (pi. 67, a), from the pod on the top being com-
posed of a stiff surface that can be used as a comb. It is called by the
French racine noir, and grows everywhere in the prairie throughout
the Indian country. It is chewed and applied in a raw state with a
88253°— 30 28
426 TRIBES OF THE TIPPER MISSOURI [bth. ann. 46
bandage to the part affected. We can bear witness to the efficacy
of this root in the cure of the bite of the rattlesnake or in alleviat-
ing the pain and reducing the tension and inflammation of frozen
parts, gunshot wounds, etc. It has a slightly pungent taste re-
sembling black pepper, and produces a great deal of saliva while
chewing it. Its virtues are known to all the tribes with which we
are acquainted, and it is often used with success. A decoction of the
root of cat-tail (pi. 67, 6) is also used to reduce inflammation, and
given internally to produce perspiration, but mostly as an external
application for wounds, sprains, and pains of all kinds, as also the in-
ner bark of the red willow; both of which are said to be beneficial,
and are much used by the Indians and French voyageurs in all the
Indian country.
At the risk of a smile and perhaps something more from the en-
lightened civilized medical fraternity we will now state how they
absolutely can and do cure hydrophobia, in hopes of furnishing
them with a hint that may be improved upon. We have never
actually seen this operation, but are as certain of its being done as
we can be of anything not seen but in all
other respects well authenticated. Al-
though Indians are often bitten by mad
wolves, yet they never die from the disease
Figure 30.— Lancet ^^ operated upon. After it is known that
the patient has hydrophobia, the symptoms
of which they are well acquainted with, and has had a fit or two. he is
sewed up in a fresh rawhide of a buffalo. With two cords attached to
the head and foot of the bale the man is swung backward and forward
through a hot fire until the skin is burnt to cinders and the patient is
burned and suffocated [sic]. He is brought to the brink of the gi-ave
by the operation; taken out in a state of profuse perspiration and
plunged into cold water; and if he survives the treatment the disease
disappears. The remedy is terrible. Now, if the poison of the rattle-
snake is expelled by perspiration by administering ammonia and
other remedies, might not the poison communicated by the rabid
animal undergo a like process by the violent treatment mentioned,
or intense heat produce the desired constitutional revolution and
effect a cure.
Depletion by Bleeding. — They bleed often, both when the pulse is
full from sickness and at any time they think it beneficial.
The instrument is a sharpened arrow point or any other small piece
of pointed iron. (Fig. 30.) They wrap the whole of this with sinew
except as much as they wish to enter the vein. It is then tied into a
split stick and secured firmly with sinew and being laid on the vein is
knocked in suddenly with the thumb and middle finger. They also
DENio] THE ASSINIBOIN 427
open the veins of their legs and arms while crying over dead relatives,
making large transverse cuts with knives, arrow points, or flints.
When they bleed they generally let the lilood flow as long as it will
without bandage. Cupping is done with a part of the upper end of
a buffalo lurn, about 2i^ inches long, and a vacuum is produced by
suction with the mouth which, with their powerful muscles and exer-
tions, is, of course, double force. It is said to be useful in drawing
out the poison of snake bites and is also used for pains and cramps
in the stomach, besides for extracting worms, bugs, snakes, etc., as
mentioned in the general jiractice. We believe it may have some-
thing of the effect of dry cupping with glasses ; they do not, however,
scarify before cupping except in cases of snake bites.
Stoppage of Blood and Healing Art. — For stopping of blood they
use cobwebs, dried pulpy fungus, or very fine inner bark of trees.
When these are not to be had finely pulverized rotton wood is used.
These answer tolerably well when the divided artery is small. They
have no good plasters or healing salves.
Bandages are mostly tied on too tight, with the view of stopping
the bleeding and are left too long before being removed, which fre-
quently results in gangrene. They are not skillful nor clean in these
things, seldom washing a wound. From actual observation, which
has been pretty extensive with regard to cuts and wounds of all
kinds, we are disposed to believe that their cure does not depend upon
any skill in treatment nor care taken of them, but upon their vigorous
constitutions, extremely healthy climate, and strictly temperate mode
of life, with perhaps a disposition to heal naturally in the absence of
scientific knowledge vouchsafed to the ignorant Indian by an all-wise
Creator.
Amputation. — Tliey never amiDutate a limb, though fingers and
toes often undergo that operation." The Assiniboin run a sharp knife
around the joint of the finger and snap it off. The Crows do the
same, but on other occasions take them off by placing a sharp toma-
hawk on the finger, it being laid on a block and the tomahawk being
struck with a mallet. Whenever a Crow Indian dies his near rela-
tives, male and female, sacrifice each a finger and sometimes two, and
the loss of these people by sickness and enemies the last few years
having been great, there is scarcely such a thing as a whole hand to be
found in the Crow Nation. The men reserve the thumb and middle
finger on the left and tiie thumb and two forefingers of the right hand
to use the bow and gim, but all the rest are sacrificed.
They mostly take them off at the first and second joints, though
occasionally lower down. These small amputations are seldom at-
' In the few cases where the Indians have an arm or leg missing, they have been shot off,
or so nearly off as not to come under the head of amputation, as hut little skin or nt'rve
were to be cut.
428 TRIBKS OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ANN. 46
tended with any serious effect, but from tlieir awkward operations the
bone frequently projects and requires a long time to heal. They use
splints and bark in fractures and lacerated bones, but are not skillful
in applying them, nor attentive in removing them, and in a short
time the wound smells bad. Their wounded are carried from the
field in a blanket, robe, or skin, by four men each holding a corner,
who are relieved by others when fatigued, in which way they trans-
port them for days and sometimes weeks together. Wlien very badly
wounded in an enemy's country and supposed to be mortally wounded
they are left in some point of timber to die. A small stock of pro-
visions and ammunition is left with them. They sometimes recover
almost by miracle. Instances of this kind are not imcommon and
serve to show the suffering an Indian will undergo and the different
means he will use to preserve life.
Theory or Diseases and their Remedt. — They understand
nothing of the properties of mineral medicines except a few simple
ones given them by whites of later years, neither are they acquainted
with the theory of diseases, being for the most part unable to describe
their complaint so that any person could prescribe. They are as
ignorant of any true knowledge of diseases or medicines as they are
of astronomy or any other science.
It is hardly conceivable how the smallpox among Indians could be
cured by any physician. All remedies fail. The disease kills a
greater part of them before any eruption appears. We have person-
ally tried experiments on nearly 200 cases according to Thomas's
Domestic Medicine, varying the treatment in every possible form,
but have always failed, or in the few instances of success the disease
had assumed such a mild form that medicines were unnecessary. It
generally takes the confluent turn of the most malignant kind (when
the patient does not die before the eruption), which in 95 cases out
of 100 is fatal. It appears to be the natural curse of the red men,
and here we leave it, perfectly willing others should do more. We
have from year to j'ear tried to introduce general vaccination with
kinepock among them, and have even paid them to vaccinate their
own children, but they will not have it done to any extent, and the few
who will do it more to please us than to benefit themselves. More-
over, should any accident happen to the child or even should the
Indian miss his hunt, or any casualty befall him or his family, the
vaccination would be blamed for it and the good-hearted operator
would find himself in a position of danger and expense. There is
also great risk in giving them medicines, for should the patient die
the whites would be blamed for poisoning him, and should he live
the Indian drummer or doctor will get both the credit and the pay.
Therefore, as their customs at present stand but little can be done
for them, however willing people are to attempt it.
DKNic] THE ASSINIBOIN 429
Parturition. — Men never interpose their services in cases of
l^arturition.
When there is clanger a midwife is called, and the deobstruents
administered are castoreimi and pulverized rattles of the rattle-
snake, either of which have the effect of the ergot. Shampooing
is also resorted to with the view of detaching the fetus or expelling
the enveloj^e. Nevertheless strangulation and consequently death of
both mother and child often happens, not so much in the natural
coui'se as when destroyed expressly in utero, as is done by the Crow
women and sometimes by the Assiniboin. though not to such an ex-
tent by the latter. This is accomplished by violent pressure on the
abdomen, by leaning on a stick planted in the ground, and, swinging
the whole weight of their body, they run backward and forward, or
by violent blows administered by some other person called for the
purpose, in all which operations, if the time be not well calculated
for expelling the fetus, death is the consequence.
Their vajjor baths have been alluded to and might prove efficacious
in some cases of chronic rheumatism, catarrh, etc., if proper care
was taken, but are very pernicious owing to their negligence after-
wards, or cold immersion during perspiration. In conclusion we
would remark that with regard to any judicious treatment of any
disease whatever (that is, any such treatment as would meet medical
approbation) they are entirely in the dark. The most of their de-
pendence is on the drumming, singing, and incantations which per-
haps sometimes have some little effect on the mind of youthful
patients, though in these cases the probability is they are more
frightened than sick.
In a large camp the dinim can be heard at all hours of the day
and night, as there is always some one who is sick, or thinks he is.
What appears singular is that the doctor, knowing his art to be
deception, should he fall sick calls for another divining man and
pays foi" the drumming the same as his patients have paid him.
This would seem to prove they actually have faith in their own in-
cantations, etc. They can not distinguish between an artery and a
vein. They call both by the same name, though they say the arteries
are large veins. Arteries are compressed, not taken up when cut,
and if a large one is cut, the consequence is either mortification from
the ligature or, if loosely tied, death by bleeding, which invariably
happens when the large artery of the thigh is separated.
Indians will receive extensive wounds, apparently mortal, and yet
recover. Some years ago an Assiniboin was surrounded by three
Blackfeet a few miles from this place. He had fired at a prairie hen,
and the moment his gun was discharged the three enemies fired on
him. The three balls took effect. One broke his thigh, another the
shin bone of the other leg, and the third entered his abdomen and
430 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ANN. 46
came out near the kidney and backbone. They then ran in upon and
endeavored to scalp him, running a knife around the cranium and
partially withdrawing the scalp. Finding that he struggled they
stabbed him with a long lance downward under the collar bone,
the lance running along the inside and against the right ribs about
12 inches. They also gave him several more stabs in the body with
their knives.
In the struggle the man got out the lance and plunging it at them
alternately they retired a few paces. The camp in the meantime
having heard the firing and suspecting the cause, turned out. The
enemies seeing this, decamped, and the Assiniboin carried the
wounded man to his lodge. In a few days afterwards the camp
passed by the fort and the writer saw this man in so helpless a state
that, expecting him to die, nothing was done. The weather was very
hot, the wounds had a pui'ple color, smelt bad, and had every ap-
pearance of gangrene. The camp moved off and the man in time
recovered. The scalp was replaced and grew on again. Here was
no judicious treatment, not even ordinary care, for in traveling that
is impossible, and very unfavorable weather. This man is yet living
and is said by the Indians to bear a charmed life, is respected as a
warrior and brave, called " He who was many times wounded," and
can be seen any time in the Band des Canots of the Assiniboin.
Government
Tribal Organization and Government. — The tribe of Indians
called Assiniboin is separated into the following distinct bands, viz,
Wah-to'-pah-han-da'-tok, or " Those who propel boats," by the whites
Gens du Gauche, from the circumstance of the old Gauche (chief)
spoken of before who for a half century governed this band. It now
numbers 100 lodges. The second band, Wah-ze-ab-we-chas-ta, or
Gens du Nord, thus named because they came from that direction in
1839 as already represented, though their original appellation was
Gens du Lac. These count 60 lodges. Third band, Wah-to-pan-ah,
or Canoe Indians, Gens des Canots, who may be recorded at 220 lodges
that trade on the Missouri, and 30 lodges more who deal with Ameri-
can and British traders near the mouth of Pembina and Ked Rivers,
occasionally visiting the Missouri. Fourth band, We-che-ap-pe-nah,
or Gens des Filles, literally the " Girls Band "; these can be put down
at 60 lodges. Fifth, E-an-to-ah or Gens des Roches, literally " Stone
Indians," comprising 50 lodges. The original name for the whole
Dation given them by the Chippewa (As-see-ni-pai-tuck) has the
same ' signification. Within the last 10 years another division has
again arisen, called Hoo-tai-sha-pah or " Lower End Red," alias
' For correct meaning see footnote 1.
denig]
THE ASSINIBOIN
431
" Red Root." These are a branch from the Gens des Canots and
odds and ends of other bands and consist of 30 lodges.
Eecapitulation
Indian name
French name
Lodges
Chiefs of bands
Head chief
Wah-to-pah-han-da-toh
Gensdu Gauche
100
60
220
60
50
30
La Main que tremble...
Le Robe de vent
Gens des Canot
Gens des FUles -
Gens des Roches
Les Yeux Gris
Crazy Bear.
Premier qui voile
520
Average, four and one half persons per lodge. Total, 2,340 souls.
These 520 lodges form the nation, with the exception of those
residing in the north, whom they never visit. The bands named
are distinct and usually encamped in different sections of country,
though they mingle for a short time when circumstances require it,
such as scarcit}^ of buffalo in some part of their lands or on an
approach of a numerous enemy. When these causes for combina-
tion cease they separate and occupy their customary grounds sev-
erally, within three or four days' travel of each other. The chief of
the whole nation is Crazy Bear, made so by the commissioner of the
United States at the Laramie treaty in 1851, not having as yet,
however, that pofDular rule which will follow in due time if the
treaty stipulations on both sides are complied with.
Chiefs. — In each and all the bands mentioned there are several
men bearing the character, rank, and name of chiefs. But he only
is considered as chief of the band who heads and leads it. Yet this
power does not give him a right to tj^rannize over any of the other
chiefs, or dictate to them any course they would not willingly follow;
neither does it detract from their dignity and standing to acknowl-
edge him as the head. Some one mii.st be the nominal leader, and
as this place involves some trouble and action and is not repaid with
any extra honors or gifts it is not in general much envied. More-
over, this leader is mostly, if not always, supported by numerous
connections who second his views and hence his authority. In fact,
these bands are nothing more than large families, the chiefs resem-
bling the old jjatriarchs, being intermarried and connected in such
a way as to preclude the probability of clashing of interests or
separation. These are the elements of the bands. The chief is little
more than the nominal father of all and addresses them as his
children in a body.
Now, although some of these children may be as brave as he, and
have accomplished greater feats in war and the chase, yet they do not
feel disposed to dispute his acknowledged authority, neither would
432 TRIBES OF THE TIPPER MISSOURI [eth. ans. 40
such insubordinate conduct be submitted to by the mass of the people,
without some great mismanagement on the part of the chief, render-
ing such a course necessary and inevitable.
The process of arriving at the chieftaincy — an instance of which
was exemijlified in the formation of the Ked Root Band and of which
we were an eyewitness — has always been the same and is as follows :
Some ambitious brave 3'oung man with extensive relations separate
from another band with 8 or 10 lodges of his connections and rove
and hunt in a portion of the country by themselves, aclmowledging
this man as their head on account of his known bravery and success-
ful management of large war expeditions. From time to time addi-
tions are made to this band from other bands of persons with their
families who from different causes of dissatisfaction choose to leave
their leaders and submit to the government of the new chief. This
chief, wishing to rise, does all in his power to benefit his small band
by ijrotecting them, choosing good hunting grounds, giving to them
all horses and other property taken by him from his enemies, and, if
necessary, fearlessly risking his life to strike or kill one of his own
people to preserve order or their sense of justice. In the course of
some years around this nucleus is assembled a body which assumes
the form and name of a band and the leader, rising in power and
support, increases in respect, and the standing and name of chief
rewards his perseverance. It will be thus seen that the title and posi-
tion of chief is neither hereditary nor elective, but being assumed by
the right and upon the principles above explained, is voluntarily
granted him by his followers.
And this is the correct representation of the origin of Assiniboin
chieftainship and different bands being the same in all the roving
tribes of which we attempt to treat in these pages. This high officer
does not, however, at all times wear his honors securely. It is a
known impossibility for any man in high station to please everybody,
and although surrounded by numerous and strong friends yet he must
have some enemies, and it does happen, though rarely, that he is
assassinated. But this is more the consequence of some personal
quarrel than ambitious designs, for although by assassination the
chief is destroyed yet it does not follow that the assassin would take
his place. Generally the reverse is the case and he is obliged to fly
or the relatives of the deceased chief would kill him. In the event
of the decease of a leader or chief, most likely some one of his rela-
tives would succeed him, but whether brother, cousin, or uncle would
not matter. The successor must absolutely possess the requisite gov-
erning powers, viz, known and acknowledged bravery and wisdom,
moderation, and justice. If the relative be thus constituted, he would
become the chief, not because he is a relative, or that he is the only
brave man in camp — ^there are many such — but simply by being such
DENiQ] THE ASSINIBOIN 433
and having a stronger family connection than any other he would
consequently be acKnowledged by the greater part of the band.
Should there be two candidates for the chieftainship equally capable
and related, the question would be decided the first day the camiJ
moved.
Each would follow the leader he liked best, and the smaller portion
would soon revert to the larger, or if they were equally divided and
both i^arties intractable, a new band would be formed subject to
increase under their new leader or to dissolve and mix up with other
bands. Viewing things in this light, it is easily comprehended liow
some personal defect, such as loss of sight or constitutional debility,
would depose a chief, but that these unfortunate circumstances
should render him a laughingstock and butt for others who before
feared and respected him is a trait in their character not to be ad-
mired. We have said enough to give a general idea of the origin,
progress, and tenure of chieftainship. It is only elective so far as
general consent has accorded his right to rule, and is only hereditary,
or appears so, because the relatives of the chief are mostly the most
numerous, and from their ranks arises a successor. Though we have
witnessed the chieftainship pass into other hands when the claims
of two jjowerful families were equal and the abilities or popularity
of one of the candidates defective in some principal part.
Women are never acknowledged as chiefs, or have anything to
say in councils. We know of but one anomalous instance of the kind
on the whole upper INIissouri which, being very remarkable, merits
notice. She is a Blackfoot by birth, but having been taken prisoner
when young by the Crows, was raised by and has since resided with
that nation, being identified with them.
We have known this woman for 10 years, and during that time
have seen her head large war parties of men against the Blackfeet,
bringing away great numbers of horses, and killing several of the
enemy with her own hand. She is likewise a good himtress, both on
foot with the gun and on horseback with the bow and arrow, ranks
as a warrior and brave and is entitled to a seat in councils of the
Crow Nation. She ranked as fifth from the Crow chief in a council
held bj' the writer with the Crows and the Cree at Fort Union on the
occasion of making a peace between these two nations. She keeps
up all the style of a man and chief, has her guns, bows, lances, war
horses, and even two or three young women as wives, but in reality
servants. In appearance she is tolerably good-looking, has been
handsome, is now about 40 years of age. and still goes to war. Her
name is "Woman Chief," and although dressed as a woman the
devices on her robe represent some of her brave acts. 'She is fear-
less in everything, has often attacked and killed full-grown grizzly
bears alone, and on one occasion rode after a war party of Blackfeet,
434 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ANN. 46
killed and scalped one alone (within sight of our fort on the
Yellowstone), and returned unharmed amid a shower of bullets and
arrows. This extraordinary woman is well known to all whites and
Indians. She resided at Foi't Union last winter, and appeal's in pri-
vate disposition to be modest and sensible ; but she is an only instance
in all the roving tribes of the Missouri. Her success induced an imi-
tation a few years since by an Assiniboin woman, but she was killed
by the enemy on her first war excursion, since which no rivals have
sprung up.
Having disposed of the chieftainship for the time and separated
the nation into bands, we will now proceed to describe other divi-
sions which we shall call clans. These are clubs or societies formed
by the young men of different bands or of the same band. There
are not many among the Assiniboin, they being a small nation, but
are numerous among the Sioux and the Blackfeet, bearing the
names of Foxes, Foolish Dogs, Strong Hearts, Bulls, Pheasants, etc.
Among the Assiniboin are first the braves, Na-pa'-shee-nee, Ceux qui
sauvent, who are a picked body of young men, said to be bound by
the most solemn promises and oath never to run from an enemy or
leave one of their clan in danger. They are chosen from all the
bands on account of some previous brave act, and are only known as
a body at feasts of their own and on war expeditions. Tliey wear no
badges but dance completely naked in public and have different
songs, different from those of other dances. The Bulls, Tah-tun-gah,
are another of the same kind of clans in the band. Gens des Canots.
Their badge is a bull's head and horns painted on their drums,
shields, and robes, also in the Bull Dance they imitate the motions
of that animal, his bellowing, and shoot at each other's feet with
powder. When dancing they wear the head and horns of a bull,
skinned to the neck, the bones taken out, and the skin driecL Into
this the head of the man is thrust, giving him the appearance of
half man and half animal.
The Sndoo-kah, " Circumcised." — This is a large clan of the band,
Gens des Canots, consisting of at least 100 persons, young and old.
They have not actually had circumcision performed, but these are
called so, and belong to that class who are naturally minus the
prepuce. These assemble once or twice a year and their cei'emonies
are kept somewhat secret. They are, however, obliged to display
the part alluded to, to prevent imposition. When wishing to be
known in that capacity on private occasions they paint the tip of
their nose red. The end of a feather painted red or the pod of the
plant sketched as the comb root stuck in their hair is equally
significant.
The Fox and Wolf clans are small and only appear to differ in the
manner of their dances and songs. There does not seem to be much
DENia] THE ASSI]SriBOI]Sr 435
iiiipoi-tance attached to these clans, neither do they appear to be of
much use, and most likely are got up for the purpose of display,
dancing, and other ceremonies, but as soon as these are over mix up
with the l)ands they belong to. and are very little talked of. There
are no minor subdivisions except into families. These remarks answer
nearly all search for origins of bands in badges and names of bands.
Now, as far as the roving tribes are concerned, this is error. The
names of the Assiniboin bands we have mentioned and those of the
Sioux now follow, some of which consist of two, three, and four
hundred lodges, and none of them have the least reference to Bear,
Wolf, Eagle, Fox, or Father, Grandfather, Uncle, etc., or anything
of the kind.
The names of the different bands of the Missouri and the Platte
Sioux are Lower Yanctons, Sechong-hoo (Burnt Thighs), Oglala,
Sawone,' Minneconzshu, Etasepecho (Sans Ai'cs), Honcpajja, Seah-
sappah (Blackfeet Band), Wohainoompa (Two Kettle Band). Mide-
wahcoiito, Esantees, Teezaptah, Zahbaxah (Tete Coupees), Waze-
cootai (Tii'eur dans les Pines).
As before remarked, not one of these names bears the most distant
resemblance to any living animal, bird, and so forth, neither have any
of them any general badge representing these things as symbolical of
their band.^ The clans before i-eferred to are of no importance in
their government and with the Sioux and with the Assiniboin are
only recognized as separate bodies during their dances and other
ceremonies.
Is each band entitled to one or more chiefs ? There is, as observed
before, but one nominal chief to each band, and it is he who leads it.
Yet this position does not destroy nor militate against the will of
several others in the same band whose voices are as much entitled to
a hearing and sometimes more so than his. No man's rule over them
is absolute ; their government is pure democracj'. Their consent to be
governed or led by any man is voluntarily given and likewise with-
drawn at the discretion of the person. But their existence as a
people depends on forming themselves into bodies capable of defense.
These bodies must have leaders and these leaders must be brave, re-
spected, followed, and supported. In case of a treaty either with
whites or with Indians of other nations, the leading chief's voice
would have no additional weight because he is in that position. He
would be allowed to state his opinions with others of the same stand-
ing as men in the same band, but nothing more. As a good deal that
is to follow will depend upon receiving a correct idea of these chiefs
or leaders we do not like to leave any portion of these matters ob-
scure or unanswered. There are no bands more honorable than
^ This term is tiie same as Saone or Sanona.
» Here Denig seems to refer to wliat is commonly called clan totems.
436 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ann. 46
others ; some are more powerful, more raseally, or more tractable, but
no aristocratic or honorable distinctions exist.
Soldiers. — Having mentioned and explained the divisions of bands
and clans with the chiefs thereof, the next important body in their
government is the ah-kitch-e-tah,^" or soldiers or guard. These
soldiers are picked from the band on account of their proved bravery
and disposition to see things well conducted. They are men of
family from 25 to 45 years old, steady, resolute, and respectable,
and in them is vested the whole active power of governing the camp
or rather of carrying out the decrees and decisions of councils. In
a camp of 200 lodges they would number 50 to 60 men, and in a
camp of 60 lodges 10 to 15 men. The soldiers' lodge is pitched in
the center of the camp and occupied by some of them all the time,
although the whole body are only called when the chief wishes a
public meeting or when their hunting regulations are to be decided
upon. This is their statehouse ; all business relative to the camp and
other nations is transacted there, and all strangers or visitors, white
or red, are lodged therein.
Neither women, children, nor even young men are allowed to enter
in business hours and seldom are seen there at any time. All tongues
of animals killed in hunting belong to this lodge if they wish them,
and the choicest parts of meat are furnished them by the young
hunters all the time. A tax is also laid on the camp for the tobacco
smoked here, which is no small quantity, and the women are each
obliged to furnish some wood and water daily.
T^Tiat are the general powers of chiefs in council? To explain
this, it will be necessary to describe a council as witnessed by me a
few years since. The camp when I was a visitor consisted of about
110 lodges and in the neighborhood, say, 10 or 15 miles off were two
other camps, respectively 50 and 60 lodges, all being of the band
Gens des Canots. Tlie council was held in the soldiers' lodge,
where, being a stranger, I had a right to be, though having nothing
to say regarding the question. This question was, AVill we make
peace with the Crow Nation ? A few days previous the leading chief
had received an intimation through me that overtures for a peace
were made to them by the Crow Nation, and that the Crow tobacco
sent for that purpose was in my possession at any time the council
assembled ; also that a deputation of Crow Indians was at the Fort,
Avho had commissioned me to bear the tobacco with their request
and to await a reply prior to their visiting the camp in person.
To decide this runners were sent immediately to the two camps
mentioned with a message from the chief requesting the attendance
of all chiefs, counsellors, soldiers, and warriors who felt an interest
^^ In form and sonsp this torm nh-kltch'e-tah is identical with the Chippewa I'ltchttica,
"sacred, holy, honorable," and with the Cree okitchitaw, "a brave, a soldier, un soldati."
denig]
THE ASSINIBOIN 437
in the affair in question, who in due time arrived and took up their
residence in the different lodges around about until the hour for busi-
ness arrived. When it was ascertained that all or a sufficient number
had come the haranguer or public crier of the camp made the circle
of the village, speaking at the extent of his voice the object of the
meeting and inviting all soldiers, chiefs, and braves or warriors to
attend and hear what their chief would bring before them for their
Lodge door
FiGCEE 31. — Diagram of a council lodge, representing the interior
of a council lodge in wliich Mr. Denig met the Assiniboin leaders
to discuss peace overtures made by the Crow Indians to the
Assiniboin at the instigation of Mr. Denig. At a point directly
opposite the doorway Mr. Denig is seated with the protEered
tobacco of the Crow Indians lying in front of him, denoted by
3 parallel marks : at Mr. Deuig's right sits the leading Assiniboin
chief; to his right sit 6 other chiefs and councillors; next are
seated 18 so-called " soldier.s," i, e., official guards of the camp ;
the next 15 figures are 15 principal young warriors. The
small .square figure with a central dot is a small Are ; and the
small circlet beside the fire is a flagstaff running up through the
lodge top, fiying a United States fiag. The calumet pipe lies in
front of the leading chief.
consideration. This was repeated over and over again in different
parts of the camp, and shortly afterwards they began to assemble in
the soldiers' lodge. Three skin lodges had been formed into one,
making an area 24 feet in diameter, which could with ease accom-
modate 60 to 80 persons. On this occasion about 46 people presented
themselves and when the whole had entered the interior exhibited
the form shown in Figure 31,
438 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ann. 46
It was nearly sunset when they had assembled and no feast had
been prepared in this lodge, though after the council was over they
were feasted elsewhere. We have here the represented authority of
220 lodges, for the chiefs are largely connected, having from 10 to
20 or more lodges of their immediate relatives each. The soldiers
are the most respectable heads of families in camp, and the warriors
are the sons and relations of these and others of the camp. If this
body decides on carrying a point who are to object? Those about
are also related to those present and these being the principal leave
only young rabble, very old men, women, and children not repre-
sented, all of whom combined could do nothing against the decision
of this body. We will now proceed with the ceremony. For nearly
a half hour the pipe was passed around in silence, it being filled with
their own tobacco and handed from mouth to mouth, making its
circuit on the right-hand, after which it was laid down by the lead-
ing chief and he opened the meeting by thus stating its object, the
words of whom and others were taken down by us at the time and
preserved. It will be necessary to state here that the Crow Indians
had massacred about 30 lodges of this same band two years previous
on the banks of the Yellowstone, yet had succeeded in making a peace
with some of the upper bands of Assiniboin who had not suffered by
them.
The leading chief spoke thus from where he sat :
" My children, I am a mild man. For upward of 20 years I have
herded you together like a band of horses. If it had not been for
me, you would long ago have been scattered like wolves over the
prairies. Good men and wise men are scarce; and, being so, they
should be listened to, loved, and obeyed. My tongue has been worn
thin and my teeth loosened in giving you advice and instruction. I
am aware I speak to men as wise as myself, many braver, but none
older or of more experience. I have called you together to state
that our enemies (the Crows) have sent tobacco, through the me-
dium of the whites at the big fort, to me and my children, to see
if they could smoke it with pleasure, or if it tasted badly. For my
part I am willing to smoke. We are but a handful of men sur-
rounded by large and powerful nations, all our enemies. Let us
therefore by making a peace reduce this number of foes and increase
our number of friends. I am aware that many here have lost rela-
tives by these people, so have we by the Gros Ventres, and yet we
have peace with them. If it be to our interest to make peace all
old enmities must be laid aside and forgotten. I am getting old,
and have not many more winters to see, and am tired seeing my
children gradually decrease by incessant war. We are poor in
horses — from the herds the Crows own we will replenish. They
DENIQ] THE ASSINIBOIN 439
■will pay high and give many horses for peace. The Crows are good
warriors, and the whites say good people and will keep their word.
Whatever is decided upon let it be manly. We are men ; others can
speak. I listen — I have said."
This speech was received by a slight response by some of Hoo-o-o-o
and by the majority in silence. After a few minutes' interval he
was replied to by another chief, the third or fourth from where
he sat. This was a savage, warlike, one-eyed Indian, and his speech
was characteristic. He said : " He differed from all the old chief
had said regarding their enemies. Individually as a man and as
their leader he liked his father, the chief, but he must be growing
old and childish to advise them to take to smoke the tobacco of
their enemies, the Crows. Tell the whites to take it back to them.
It stinks, and if smoked would taste of the blood of our nearest
relations. He thought (he said) his old father (the chief) should
make a journey to the banks of the Yellowstone, and speak to the
grinning skulls of 30 lodges of his children, and hear their answer.
Would they laugh? Would they dance? Would they beg for
Crow tobacco or cry for Crow horses? If horses were wanted in
camp, let the young men go to war and steal and take them as he had
done — as he intended to do as long as a Crow Indian had a horse.
What if in the attempt they left their bones to bleach on the prairie?
It would be but dying like men ! For his jjart it always pleased
him to see a young man's skull ; the teeth were sound and beautiful,
appearing to smile and say, ' I have died when I should and not
waited at home until my teeth were worn to the gums by eating
dried meat.' The young men (he said) will make war — ^must have
war — and, as far as his influence went, should have war. I have
spoken."
This speech was received with a loud and prolonged grunt of
approbation by more than two-thirds of the assembly.
Other speeches followed on both sides oJc the question, some long,
some short, until the council became somewhat heated and turbulent;
not, however, interrupting one another, but mixing a good deal of
private invective and satire with the cjuestion in their speeches. At
a point of violent debate and personal abuse, two soldiers advanced
to the middle of the lodge and laid two swords crosswise on the
ground, which signal immediately restored order and quiet. The
debate was carried on with spirit for about two hours but it was
easily to be perceived long before it terminated, by their I'esponses
and gestures, that the war faction greatly predominated. The chief,
after asking if all had spoken and receiving an affirmative answer,
remarked they could go and eat the feast that had been prepared for
them. The warriors gave a loud yell and when out commenced
440 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. anx. 46
singing tlieir war song. We asked the old cliief wliat was the deci-
sion. He said, " It is plain enough ; listen to that war cry." He then
desired me to send the Crow tobacco back without delay and tell
them to leave the fort immediately and go home. A few days after
a large war party started to the Crow village. The morning after
the council's decision was made known by the haranguer or public
crier, at the break of day, walking through the village and crying it
out at the top of his voice. From the foregoing it will be seen that
the chief only expressed his opinion as the others, yet the large ma-
jority or rather the feeling evinced for war by the leaders of the war
parties, warriors, heads of families, soldiers, and all who could make
war, left none to contend with.
Had the same general exhibition for peace jDrevailed, the same
powers could make it, or rather force would be unnecessary when a
unanimity of such a body prevailed. Had the parties or feeling been
equally manifest the question would have been laid aside for another
time, perhajis years, and each went to war or remained at home as
he pleased.
Most councils have this feature and termination, that is, if the
measure is not at once visibly popular, it is abandoned. This pre-
cludes the necessity of vote and none is taken. Besides, except for
camp regulations, hunting, etc., they are not obliged to decide. Time
is not valuable to them. There is no constituent power in the rest of
the band, whose voices are not asked, nor required, to force a deci-
sion, nor actual power to operate against any measures, that may
be decided upon by their parents, and soldiers of the camp. Wher-
ever force is necessary, however, to carry out these decisions, as in
hunting regulations, the soldiers are pledged to act in a body to
effect it, even at the risk of their lives. But should the decision be
for a peace and afterwards a war party be raised to go against the
nation with which peace has been made, the soldiers would not use
force to prevent it. They have too much good sense to strike or kill
any of their own people to benefit their enemips, and in this case the
peace party being the most numerous, and consequently the richer,
would pay the jiartisan, or leader of the party, to remain at home
and a collection of horses, guns, and other property made among
them for that purpose, which being handed the partisan and by
him divided among his warriors, stops the expedition.
This is done often among them, particularly at this time when
" peaces " have become tolerably general through the Laramie treaty.
There are cases, however, where force is necessary, and the soldiers
are brought to act, which we will shortly mention. To present any
idea of their government so that it can be understood, we must first
proceed to describe the component parts of a large camp, after which
it will be easy to perceive their principles of government. The regu-
DENia] THE ASSINIBOIN 441
lations kept up in the following description is only in large camps :
Smaller ones, from 10 to 20 lodges, hunt, every man when he pleases,
and, as there are but few persons to feed, they can always have
meat in this way ; but where the camp is composed of from 50 to 100
or 200 lodges this is not the case, as will presently appear.
Component Pasts of a Large Caiip
1. The leading chief. 10. Parti.saus.n
2. The other chiefs. 11. Doctors and conjurors.
3. Chief of the soldiers. 12. Very old men.
4. Cook of the soldiers' lodge. 13. Young women.
5. The soldiers. 14. Old women.
6. The elderly men. 15. Middle-aged women.
7. The harauguer. 16. Boys and girls.
8. The master of the Park. 17. Very small ehlidreu.
9. Warriors and hunters.
The ordinary occupations of these several divisions of the camp
will now be taken up in order.
1. The leading Chief, Hoon-gah, being the head, is expected to
devote his time to studying the welfare of his people. It is for
him to determine where the camp shall be placed and when it should
move; if war parties are advisable, and with whom, how many, and
at what time ; where soldiers' camps and the soldiers' lodge should be
established ; when traders are wanted in camp, or when they shall go
to the fort to trade; to call councils on these and all other affaii's of
general interest.
2. The other Chiefs, Hoo-gap-pe. These are sometimes counselled
privately in their lodges by their leader and their advice followed if
correct and according to his views. They sit in council when called,
and rank equally with the leader as men, warriors, counsellors, etc.,
except they do not publicly attempt to lead or act without his knowl-
edge and consent.
3. Chief of the soldiers, Ah-kitche-tah Hoon-gah. Tliis is the
head man in the soldiers' lodge; sees to their property therein,
whether there is wood, water, tobacco, and meat enough ; opens coun-
cils; sometimes sends invitations for the others to assemble when the
Chief requests, and on small occasions of his own accord; makes
feasts; lights the pipe in large assemblies, and is the nominal head
of this active body; is a highly respected and useful officer in camp.
He has much influence with the young warriors and is selected from
among the bravest of them.
4. Cook of the soldiers' lodge. First, Wo-ha-nah; second, Wah-
yu-tena. This functionary is also a soldier and a highly respectable
officer, ranking next to the Chief of the soldiers.
^ Denig employs the word partisan in the sense of " a loader of a war party."
88253°— 30 ^29
«
442 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [hth. ann.46
Eating being one of the Indian's most important occupations, the
care of the meat, choice of the parts, and separation of the whole
depending upon him, the station becomes at once of consequence and
lequires a determined man. On feasting, which in that lodge is going
on every night, if not every day, he dishes out the meat into wooden
bowls and gives to each the parts he chooses. Of a dog, the head,
paws, and grease — bouillon — are the most honorable parts. There
is great etiquette shown in tliis respect, and it is too long a story to
record when there is so much yet to be written.
6. The soldiers, Ah-kitche-tah. These are the bravest and most
orderly men of from 25 to 35 years of age. They have been and are
still warriors and leaders of parties to war, are chosen expressly to
carry out the decrees of the council, even at the risk of their lives,
to punish people for raising the buffalo, setting the prairie on fire,
govern the camp, protect whites and strangers of other nations in
camp, entertain and feast the same, arrange preliminaries of peace,
trade, and generally to aid tlieir chief in carrying out his views and
decisions of council.
6. Elderly men, We-chap-pe. These may be called the body of the
camp, being men of family, about 40 years old, have been warriors
and soldiers when younger, but have abandoned these occupations,
devote their time to hunting, are still good hunters, try to amass
horses and other property by making robes, endeavor to get their
daughters married well, send their sons to hunt or to war.
They are respectable, quiet, peaceable men, among their own peo-
ple, content to follow their leader and obey the council, rank as coun-
cillors when they wish, are always invited though Init few attend
except on interesting occasions.
7. The Public Crier. First name, Ponkewichakeah ; second, Hoon-
kee-yah. This is some elderly or middle-aged man who has a strong
voice and a talent for haranguing. He answers the purfiose of the
daily newspaper of the whites. A little before daybreak he walks
around and through the camp different times every morning, calling
upon the young men to get up and look after their horses and arms, to
go on the hills and look foi' buffaloes, watch if there be anj' signs of
enemies about — ^to the women to get up to bring wood and water, cook,
dress hides, etc. If any news has been received in camp the day before
or any councils held, he now states the results. AVhenever the camp
is to be moved or hunts made, or enemies seen, or councils to be held,
this man publishes it in this way. He is in fact their publislier and
a useful man, doing more to preserve order and induce unanimity of
action than any other, is entitled to eat and smoke in any lodge he
happens to enter without invitation, receives many snuill pi'esents,
and is a general favorite for the trouble he gives himself.
DBNIG] TRIBES OF THE tTPPER MISSOURI 443
8. Master of the Park, Wo-wee-nah. A park or pen to catch
butfalo is not at all times made, though almost every winter there is
one or two among the Assiniboin. We will have occasion to refer
to this original method o* himting in another place; at present it
suffices to say that the person who superintends that employment is
some old conjuror or medicine man who is said to make the buffalo
appear and to bring them toward the pen. He makes sacrifices to
the Wind, the Sun, and to Wakonda, etc., of tobacco, scarlet
cloth, and other things; he is a necromancer and is supposed to be
possessed of supernatural powers and knowledge; he has from four
to six runners under his command whose business it is to discover
the buffalo within 20 or 30 miles around, and to report to him.
9. Young men, Ko-ash-kah-pe. These are a numerous body, some
warriors, some hunters, some neither. Those who have killed or
struck enemies or stolen many horses from their foes are entitled to
sit in the council and are always invited, principally to hear and
give their assent or dissent in responses, gestures, etc. They, no
doubt, would be allowed to speak but they never do, because those
who are older speak, and they are generally the fathers and rela-
tions of these young men. In this modesty of deportment they are
much to be admired. They always conform to the decisions of the
soldiers and the chiefs. The partisans or leaders of war parties are
chosen sometimes from these young men, when by their acts they have
proved a capacity to lead, though mostly it is one of the soldiers who
raises and leads the war expedition.
The Partisan is in command during the entire expedition, directs
their movements, possesses the power of a military captain among
the whites, and receives the honors or bears the disgrace of success
or failure, his authority in" that capacity ceasing on his return to
camji from the war.
10. Doctors, alias conjurors, alias priests, alias soothsayers, alias
prophets, Wah-con-we-chasta. These have been alluded to under the
head of " General Practice " in their medical capacity. They are not
numerous, form no distinct body, and unite the above talents in the
same person. They do many tricks well, also foretell events, in-
terpret dreams, utter incantations, medicine speeches and prayers,
and cry for the dead, etc. They are believed sincerely by all to
possess supernatural powers. The males of this class are sometimes
in councils but they have little influence there. Councils are matters
of fact and do not admit of their noise and flummery, without which
they are ciphers. They ai-e tolerated because somewhat feared, are
paid for their services, and by no means rank as very respectable
and efficient councillors, warrioi-s, or men.
11. Very old men, We-chah-chape. These are few. Indians are
not long-lived. These are countenanced in private feasts and or-
444 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [bth. ann. 46
dinary conversation, principally on account of their talent in reciting
fables and creating mirth for the rest. They also sing for the doc-
tors and cry for the dead when paid, are poor, not respected, and
manage to rub through the rest of their ^ays the best way they can.
They never sit in council when very old, are neglected, and serve for
a butt and ridicule for the young. They stay at home, make pipes,
smoke, and eat constantly and are ready at all times to offer their
services when something is to be gained.
12. Young women, We-kosh-kap-pi, do little work before they are
married and have their first child, after which time they commence a
laborious life. Before this they go for wood and water, garnish
with beads and porcupine quills, and other light work. They gather
berries, assist in dances, paint, and show themselves.
13. Middle-aged Women, We-yah-pe. These are the wives of the
soldiers or middle-aged men, and their time is employed in dress-
ing skins, cooking, drying meat, taking care of their children, mak-
ing cloth for their family. They are always busy, but can not be
said to lead a too laliorious or miserable life.
14. Very Old Women, We-noh-chah ( Sioux ).Wa-kun-kun-ah (As-
siniboin). On these fall all drudging and scuUionry, some of their
occupations being too disgusting to relate. They also pound meat
and berries, make pemmican, carry burdens, and are used pretty
much as one of their dogs. They are thrown into the fort or left
on the prairie to die by their own relatives.
15. Boys and Girls, Och-she-pe wechin chap-pe. The boys hunt
rabbits, set traps for foxes, play, but they seldom quarrel ; they are
great pests and nuisances, both in camp and in the fort; they are
spoiled by their parents — forward, officious, tormenting, and impu-
dent. The girls are modest, timid, and exceedingly well liehaved.
Very Small Children, Yaque-ske-pe-nah, are carried about on the
backs of their mothers, or packed on dogs; they stand severe cold
well, do not cry much, and are suckled for two or three years. The
children are as well taken care of as they can be in the roving mode
of life of their parents, but being subject to exposure in all weather
and accidents. About two out of five are raised.
The ahkitchetah regulate the hunt. The buffalo are not hunted by
a large camp as each individual chooses, but surrounded by the whole
camp at one time, which we will describe in that part of the report
which refers to hunting and to game laws. The dogs for these hunts
are determined by the chief and soldiers in the soldiers' lodge, and
the people are individually forbidden to hunt or in any manner to
raise the buffalo before that time. The reason is that by going in a
body and hemming in or surrounding them, some hundi'eds of the
animals are .slain in a short time, whereas by one man's individual
DENIG] TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI 445
hunting the wliole herd -woiikl be friglitentnl and run away and the
camp thereby be always in a starving condition, instead of having
abundance of meat as is the case when the laws respecting the sur-
round are enforced. Should any person or persons violate these
laws, after the decree of the soldiers' lodge has been published, they
(the soldiers) meet him on his return home, take his meat, kill his
dogs, or horses, cut his hides up, cut his lodge to pieces, break his
gun and bow, etc. If the individual resists or attempts to revenge
any of these things he is shot down on the spot by the soldiers, or
struck down by a tomahawk and pounded to death. Occasionally
they are also thrashed with bows, in addition to the breaking of the
gun, etc. -The writer has seen two killed and many severely thrashed
for these misdemeanors. The consequences of destroying the hunts
are serious to the whole camp, hence the violent jjenalty and examples
are made occasionally which serve to increase the respect and fear
of the soldiers as a bod}', and enables that business to proceed with
order.
In all this the soldiers are supported by the whole camp, and it is
in them as a body that decisions are invested with a binding force,
if force be necessary. We may state that the power is tacitly com-
mitted to the chief as a common and general function of the office,
to be held as long as he governs with general satisfaction, subject,
however, to the advice and consent of the soldiers and other bodies
in camp, as has been explained. They are at all times open to
poi3ular ojjinion and are only the exponents of it, and although
distinguished deeds were the cause or some of the causes of their
exaltation to this high office, and that they have since been and
generally are discontinued, when the chief becomes of middle age,
yet so long as the capacity and ability of the incumbent exists and
coincides with the popular will, he is retained in office. Old age,
debilitj', or other natural defect, and incapacity to act, advise, and
command, induces the necessity of change in his position, and though
not formally deposed, he voluntarily retires and resigns in favor
of some growing and poj^ular soldier and warrior. The disapproval
of the mass of the body of soldiers, warriors, etc., as represented in
the council of war, would also be an effectual barrier to the existence
of his power or functions in every respect and at any and all times.
It should be remembered tliat all the remarks in these pages, al-
though written primarily for the tribe called the Assiniboin, apply
equally well to all the roving tribes of the Missouri River from and
including the Sioux to the Blackfeet, our limits not admitting sepa-
rate descriptions for each tribe. Where there is any important dif-
ference, however, we will not fail to mention it.
Is the democratic element strongly implanted ? Very. The whole
is a pure democracy, as has by this been developed. There are also
446 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ann. 46
consultations in private lodges previous to meeting in councils, but
these do not appear to influence the opinions of any, further than
thereby getting a thorough acquaintance of the subject, and prepar-
ing their minds for a speech, and not much idea can be formed in
this way of the popularity of the question until it me its public dis-
cussion in the council. Neither are these private councils held with
that view but are merely conversations regarding the importance of
the subject and something to talk about, which is always desirable in
an Indian camp. They are obstinate in adhering to a formed opin-
ion and not easily moved by oratory or extraneous rei :arks, are
shrewd and pursue the subject with intensity and perseverance until
decided or abandoned. They are liable also to be carried' away by
the excitement of debate and lose sight of the subject in personal
abuse and recrimination until called to order by some more cool.
There is no vote taken, though the prevailing feeling is manifest and
tliose who do not exhibit any of this feeling are quietly askec their
opinion, which they as quietly give. All this has met with sufficient
explanation. The leading chief does nothing in advance of p blic
opinion. His business is rather to think of their welfare and in-
terests, bringing those subjects under discu-ssion which appear to
him of sufficient importance and which he sees merit consideration
by the excitement they occasion in private lodges, or if smaller mat-
ters they are left to the decision of the soldiers. In councils held
in the soldiers' lodge for hunting the chief does not always apj^ear.
When the camp is placed for the winter he assists in forming the
body of soldiers and in giving general instructions which they carry
out. Aftei'wards he seldom goes for these purposes. The business
of these soldiers will meet with further notice in these pages and
it is worth while considering their powers, as they are the active
force of all large camps.
Councils. — Councils are opened in a very sedate and orderly foi-m.
The pipe is the principal of all ceremonies, and its motions vary
with the occasions. Councils between two nations for a peace, depu-
tations of both being present, are very solemn and take a long time.
It is likely these ceremonies are very ancient, being nearly the same
among all the roving tribes. The real calumet used on this occasion
with its accompaniments presents the form as sketched and explained
in Plate 68. This instrument is always kept packed up in many
envelopes of cloth, skin, etc., the whole making a roll as thick as
a man's thigh, sometimes as large as a piece of common stovepipe, 5
or 6 feet long, is laid in the middle of the soldiers' lodge on a piece
of scarlet cloth in that way before the deputation has arrived, or
immediately on its arrival, is not opened, however, until a fidl coun-
cil has been as.sembled. The chief (who owns the pipe) then com-
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 68
TohaCCO Sad':
Clliost or Chami Sack
C cxhi-met
Cahvmd
Pipe en L'£?opeJ .
•e^
The Calumet and its accompaniments
A, The pipestem of ash wood, garnished about half its length with porcupine quills of various colors;
B, a large red-stone pipe; C, C, C, three tails of the war eagle, feathers connected with sinew and
beads or shells between. The stem or stalk of the feathers is garnished with colored porcupine
quills; D. D, two festoons of beads or shells with u small strip of otter skin on which the beads are
tied; K. the head of a mallard duck (male) without the under bill. Sometimes this is the head of
a red-headed woodpecker.
DENIG] TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI 447
mences the ceremony of unrolling it, and at the taking off of each
envelope says a few words equivalent to " Peace we wish," " Look
over us, Wakohda," " This to the Sun," " This to the Earth," etc.,
giving, as it were, some distinction or value to each envelope. After
a long time and the untying of many knots, the pipe and stem ap-
pear, with a tobacco sack, a bunch of sweet-smelling grass, a probe
for the pipe, and a small sack containing a charm or amulet. The
pipe is on this occasion filled from the tobacco (or mixture) sack
by the chief of the soldiers, though not lit, and in this way handed
to his own chief. He (the chief) now stands up, the different depu-
tations of nations sitting opposite each other on either side of the
lodge. He first presents the pipe to the East, singing a gentle and
harmonious song for about a minute, then presents it South, West,
North, to the Sky and lastly to the Earth, repeating the song at each
presentation.
In conclusion he turns it slowly three times round, and lays it down,
all responding hoo-o-oo as the pipe is placed on the ground. The
chief now sits down in his place, and the Chief of the soldiers rises.
He lights the pipe witli a piece of the sweet-smelling grass — if the
strangers are of the Crow nation a piece of dried buffalo dung is used
to light it — stands up and presents it precisely to the same points as
the chief had done without singing, giving three puffs or whiffs of the
pipe to every presentation, finishing in the same way the chief had
done, and, receiving a loud prolonged universal hoo-o-oo or grunt of
ajjprobation, he then resumes his seat. The chief now rises the sec-
ond time and having had the pipe relighted, holding the stem in his
hand advances and presents it, or rather places it in the mouth of the
head man of the strange deputation, allowing him to take a few
whiffs, passes to the next and the next, they sitting and he moving
round from one to another until all the strangers have been smoked,
fhen he hands the pipe to the chief of the soldiers and sits down.
This officer now presents the pipe in the same way to his own chief
and going round the other side smokes all his people, and hands the
pipe to another soldier, who goes the whole round again, and this is
repeated over in silence for at least two hours, when the pipe is laid
down by the chief, and speeches or signs begin by which they arrange
the preliminaries of a peace. After all is settled the pipe undergoes
the ceremony of rolling up, which is fully as long, though not in
silence, conversation becoming general and ordinary jjipes being
introduced. The termination on this occasion is a grand feast in the
soldiers' lodge to the strangers, and invitations to 50 or more other
feasts in camp, to all of which they must go, and when all is finished
the strangers are accommodated with temporary wives during their
short residence.
448 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ANN. 46
There is generally order observed in the breaking up of councils,
the chief saying " AVe are done," when all retire. Occasionally,
however, it breaks up turbulently. and they separate in passion, but
the subject is recouncilled and settled in order the next time. Dif-
ferent councils have different ceremonies. Some open and some close
with feasts of dog meat. The pipe is never omitted, though the real
calumet is never opened except in dealings with strangers. In all
other councils soldiers' pipes are used. The duties of the public
crier we have already mentioned. Questions are well debated, and
generally decided on the spot or abandoned as already explained
on the jDrinciple of large majorities, or rather general approbation,
though absolute unanimity is not required. The few who oppose
sav nothing against the affairs when once decided, and althougli they
do not relinquish their opinions, ^-et can not or will not go contrary
to the wishes of the many. But the voice of the leading chief is in
no instance taken as the expression of the will of even a single band,
much less a whole tribe.
Scope or Civil JuniSDicTiox. — A decision by the body of the coun-
cil is carried into effect by the soldiers, by force if necessar}', as in
the case of hunting by the surround, removing neighboring lodges
of their own people who are so placed as to bar the passage of the
buffalo toward the camp. Lodges thus situated are invariablj' forced
to come and join the camp or to remove so far as to be no obstruction
to the passage and advance of the buffalo, and to move them against
their will is often a serious and alwa^'S a dangerous undertaking.
They do it, however; that is, the soldiers turn out in a body, kill their
dogs, and keep doing damage until they leave. The power of taking
life is not invested in any body of Indians, neither has the council
any right to take cognizance of or legislate on the subject. If a
soldier is killed in cloing his duty the body of soldiers would imme-
diately fall upon the murderer or on any of his relatives, should he
have absconded. Crimes of this kind are privately redressed and
revenged by the relatives of th'e deceased, and as the murderer always
flies, it is often years before they can get an opportunity to kill him,
yet vengeance only slumbers. All these things will be fully explained
under the head of " Crime." It might, however, be as well to state
here that there is no public body among them whose duty it is to
punish crime of any kind, nor any authority equivalent to or resem-
bling a court of justice. Consequently, there are no public or stated
executions, neither is there any person who exercises the functions of
public executioner. All this will be fully explained, as also the
restoration of property, in the place where rights of property are
considered.
Chietship. — How are rank and succession in office regulated ?
The circumstances of the decease of the leading chief and the sue-
DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 449
cession has already been referred to. If not yet sufficiently explicit,
we may in addition state that it would be a subject of earnest debate
in council, not so much with the view of choosing the successor, as
this individual had long before been tacitly acknowledged, being the
next most popular leader of the right kind, and of the most numer-
ous connections, but to install that person into office, intimating their
desire that he should lead and govern the camp. This might be
called election, although no vote is taken, yet if a general feeling in
his favor prevails he becomes their leader; if not, those who dissent
have the jarivilege of leaving that band and joining another, or if
numerous enough for the general purposes of hunting and defense
can form a band of their own and choose a leader from among
themselves. In all this we hope to have been sufficiently explicit as
not to present any idea of a <listinct line of hereditary succession.
A chief would be deposed from his office by being guilty of any
conduct that would bring upon him general disgust and dissatisfac-
tion. Though crimes in the abstract could not have this tendency,
yet if he murdered a man without cause whose relations were numer-
ous, a skirmish between the two families and immediate separation
would be the consequence. If the murdered man was friendless
nothing would be done and the rest would fear him the more. The
oilenses that would most likely lead to his overthrow would be re-
markable meanness, parsimony, or incest. A chief must give away
all to preserve his popularity and is always the poorest in the band,
yet he takes good care to distribute his gifts among his own rela-
tives or the rich, upon whom he can draw at any time should he be
in need.
We take the custom of wearing medals to be a modern one, at
least they say so, introduced by the whites. Tlie ancient mark of
distinction was, and still is, the feathers of the eagle's tail, wrought
into headdresses of various forms, which to this day is the badge
denoting the chief and great warrior, and are not allowed the ordi-
nary class to wear. Tattooing also is a mark of dignity.
We have already named the principal chiefs of bands, though there
are others, but by no means a numerous body. But few Indians
go through war enough to arrive at that jjosition, more especially
as the same indi\adual must be possessed of other natural talents
and wisdom. The number is not limited but is from 3 to 6
or 8 in bands respectively of 50, 100, and 200 lodges. It makes
no difference in their government whether they be few or many;
if many, so much the better, as they are wise, brave, and responsible
men.
Power of the War Chief. — No chiefs are war chiefs in contra-
distinction to their being civil chiefs. If it is desirable to go to war
and so decided, any chief, soldier, or brave warrior has a right to
450 TRIBES OF THE ITPPER MISSOLIEI [eth. ann. 46
raise and lead a war party, provided he can jret followers. He then
comes under the head of partisan or captain of the expedition, his
powers in this capacity only lasting during the excursion and termi-
nating on his return to camp and resuming his ciWl place and duties.
The jjowers of war and civil chief are united in the same, also those
of warrior and hunter, soldier and hunter, soldier and partisan, chief
and partisan. The leading chief could also and often does guide the
whole band to war; in fact in the event of any general turnout, he
must be the head. Any man, however, in whom the young men
have confidence to follow, may raise and lead a war party, if war
is going on and the time suits the chiefs and soldiers in council
assembled. But as the chiefs and soldiers are the most experienced
in this occupation, and are better acquainted with their enemies'
country, they are generally chosen as leaders in these expeditions.
Yet from among the warrior class, occasionally a young partisan
arises who is neither chief nor soldier, but whose character for brav-
ery, caution, and all the necessary talents is established. There is
no specified age when a young man may rightfully express his opin-
ion. This depends on his success in war. his general good behavior,
activity in hunting, etc. When he becomes remarkable for these
things he is noticed by the soldiers, invited to feasts, to councils,
where being of sufficient consequence his opinion is iusked and is
given. We have known men not over 22 to 24 years of age being
called upon to speak in council, and others to arrive at extreme old
age without ever opening their lips there. An Indian soon sees and
feels his standing with the others, and acts accordingly ; to do other-
wise, or force his presence and opinions prematurely,' would only
incur ridicule, contempt, and disgrace.
Power of the Priests in Council. — The power of priests is con-
joined with that of doctors, sorcerers, and prophets, to which is oc-
casionally added that of councilloi's, as they are sometimes shrewd
old men and somewhat feared on account of their supposed super-
natural powers; but they do not influence councils in any great de-
gree, seldom attending at all. Whatever influence they have on
public questions must be exercised in council, and not as a separate
body. They do not constitute a bodj^ and only rank as councillors
when their former exploits have been of a nature to entitle them to
that position, and their age is not too far advanced. Being generally
very old, their opinions in council are not much regarded. Their
forte is at the bed of the sick or in other operations where something
is to be gained. In making war or peace they would have little to
say, in a cession of lands still less, and in conducting war parties noth-
ing at all. The old Gauche mentioned before, although a divining
man, was a warrior, not old at that time, and feared because he had
the power over their lives by the use of poisons which he made no
DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 451
scruple to administer; besides he was no doctor nor sorcerer on otlier
occasions, and was one of the greatest chiefs tlie Assiniboin ever had.
He was uniformly successful in his young and middle time of life,
although he failed in age and died as recorded. This extraordinary
man does not present a correct sample of a priest or sorcerer as now
considered, and is an anomalous case.
INIatkons in Council. — Neither matrons nor any other women
whatever sit in council with the men of any of the Missouri tribes,
nor have they privately any influence over men in their public aifairs,
and take but little interest in them. Their domestic duties occupy
most of their time and their social position is inferior to that of
men in every respect. We have heard of only one instance where a
woman was admitted in council, during a period of 21 years' con-
stant residence with all these tribes.
General Councils. — The roving tribes call no general councils
with other nations. Even those with whom they have for a long
time been at peace they look upon suspiciously and seldom act to-
gether in a large body. We have known, however, a combination
of Cree, Chippewa, and Assiniboin, consisting of 1.100 men, who,
having met in council, went to war upon the Blackfeet. The council
was formed by the Cree and Chippewa sending tobacco to the
Assiniboin during the winter, to meet them at a certain place the
ensuing spring, where, after deliberating the matter at home, they
went and formed the above-named expedition. It is the misfortune
of all large bodies of Indians formed of different nations to meet
with failure. They can not act in a body. Jealousies arise between
the soldiers of the different nations, often quarrels, and always sep-
arations and defeat of the object. The evil appears to be the want
of a commander in chief whom all are content to follow and obey;
also their ignorance and unwillingness to submit to discipline,
restraint, or subordination. Opinions clash, rank is interfered with,
rebellion, dissatisfaction, and consequent separation follows; or
should any considerable body keep on, their march is conducted in
such a disorderly manner that their enemies have time and notice
to enable them to hide or prepare for them. These tribes are not
yet far enough advanced in civil organization to enable them to
unite for any great purpose, excepting their mutual and general
interest require it. The only way they could and do accomplish
anything of importance at war by combination is by each nation
being headed and commanded by their own leaders and going to
war upon the general enemy at different limes and entirely inde-
pendent of each other. This increases the number of war expedi-
tions and annoys the enemy from different quarters, but does not
give them the advantage of bringing large armies into the field.
452 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [bth. ann. 46
Private Right to Take Life. — Every Indian believes he has a
right to his own life and consequently to defend it. There being no
persons or body whose duty it is to punish crime, trespass, or insult,
each individual is taught when a boy, and by experience when a
man, to rely entirely on himself for redress or protecting his person,
family, and property. Every one is thus constituted his own judge,
jury, and executioner. Whether the person wronged is right in his
means of redress does not matter. He thinks he is right and risks the
consequences of retaliation. Every Indian being armed induces the
necessity of each using arms ; therefore when an Indian strikes, stabs,
shoots, or attempts to do these things it is always with an intent to
kill, knowing if he misses his aim or only wounds, the other revenges
either on the sjiot or after, as occasion requires or opportunity oflTers.
Therefore he can not act otherwise. This being the state of things,
quarrels are not so common as might be supposed. When it is uni-
versally known that a blow or a trespass would entail death as its
consequence they are avoided, or if unavoidable each endeavors to
gain an advantage over the other by acting treacherously or waiting
a favorable time when he least expects it to kill or strike him. stating
for his reason that if he had not killed him the other only waited
the same opportunity against himself. A fair chance to kill or strike
does not always present itself. The relations may be too numerous
on one side, and the object of contention (be it a horse or a woman)
is given up for the time by the weaker party, apparently willingly,
yet he only waits until their situations are reversed to seek redress.
When a man has killed another, if the relatives of the deceased are
more numerous than his own, he flies to a distant part of the country,
joins another band and seeks protection tliere, where he is not sought
by the next of kin at the time, but will be killed whenever they
meet. In the meantime the relatives of the offender pay much to
stop the quarrel.
If the killed and the killer are both of the same band and equally
strong in relationship perhaps nothing would be done at the time as
the rest of camp would endeavor to stop a skirmish, and a good many
guns, horses, and other property would be raised and presented the
relatives of the deceased to stop further bloodshed. This generally
concludes an amnesty or resi^ite for the time, but the revenge must
be accomplished at some time by the next of kin, otherwise it would
be a great disgrace to him or them. An opportunity to kill the
offender with comparative safety is then sought, perhaps for j^ears,
or as long as any of that generation lives. Time and absence may
have the effect of giving the murderer a chance to die in some other
way or of diminishing the force of the revenge so that he does not
find himself in a position to act with any degree of safety when an
DBNIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 453
occasion offers. Yet, if of standing in camp, and a brother, father,
or brother-in-law to the deceased, he is bound to revenge at some
time, though they make no scruple to receive presents of horses, etc.,
to refrain in the meantime. Thus the death of a man is never paid
for by that generation, though by that means the revenge may be
delayed for some years, which is all they can do except surrendering
up their relative to the incensed party, which would not for a mo-
ment be thought of. We have known three or four horses to be
given on the instant by the friends of the offender to those of the
deceased and the same to be re^jeated yearly for two to six years
and more, yet still revenge was consummated. On one occasion I
asked the man why he killed the other after so long a time and taking
property as payment from his relatives and friends. He answered
that the pay was well enough as long as the culprit kept out of his
sight ; that remuneration only destroj^ed the disposition to seek him
out and kill him, although it did not affect the right to revenge if he
was fool enough to thrust himself in his way.
When he saw him his blood boiled, his heart rose up, and he could
not help it. Besides (he observed) he was obliged to kill him. as the
other, being afraid of him, would do the same to him to save his own
life. Tlius the killing of one induces the necessity of killing another,
and there is no end to the affair. The other party are obliged to re-
taliate and so on through several generations. In this way a good
many of the family of the chief, Wah-he Muzza, have been killed,
and the smallpox settled the affair by taking off the offenders on the
other side. It will be inferred from this that vengeance is not ap-
peased by payment, absence, or the lapse of time, and in the instances
where retaliation has not followed after payment we believe they
may be ascribed to a decrease in the relationship of the deceased or
other domestic changes or reverses which render vengeance out of
their power, or t-oo dangerous to accomplish, in which case the rela-
tives get over it by saying they have been paid or forgotten it, yet
at the same time would revenge, could they act with safety, or even a
chance of comparative safety. Sometimes, however, large offers of
recompense are rejected by the father or brothers of the deceased,
and the tender is then made to relatives not so closely connected,
who generally accept. Herein the cunning of the Indian is manifest.
This is a point gained. A negotiation is opened in the family of
the deceased and a difference of feeling established with regard to
the offender, slight to be sure, but it is there, and is worked by
these distant relatives to his advantage and their own, and opens a
way through which presents and overtures of compromise may be
offered the brothers, etc. But there is no dependence to be placed
on anything a wild Indian does.
454 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ANN. 46
Neither do they depend on one another. They are suspicious in
ever^'thing, and more particularly so when life is at stake. In these
compromises no one is deceived- — either he who takes or he who re-
ceives— the minds of both are pei'fectly known to each other, the
object of the one party being to gain time, and of the other to lull
suspicion and make the offender and his relatives poor by accepting
tiieir property.
We think we have presented their customs in this respect in their
true light, viz, that although the compromise be effected and
vengeance for the time suspended, yet the feeling is not changed
or the right to punish relinquished; but time may make such a
change on either part as to render revenge impracticalile. There is
no recognized principle or means of escape for the murderer unless
it be to flee and join another nation with whom they are at peace,
marry and remain there.
It will now be necessary to state that the Crow Indians are better
regulated in this respect than any of the prairie tribes. Private
murders are nearly unknown among them. Our knowledge of this
nation from certain sources extends through a period of 40 years
and in all that time but one Indian was killed by his own people.
The offender absconded and remained with the Snake Nation for
12 years, when he returned, but was obliged again to leave, and since
has not been heard of. Stealing women or otherwise seducing
others' wives is revenged by the party offended taking every horse
and all private property the offender owns, and in this he meets with
no contention. It is considered a point of honor to let everything
be taken but keep the woman. Now this nation has from 40 to
80 and sometimes 100 horses to a lodge, and a large haul is made by
the husband of the woman, in company with his i-elatives. If the
transgi-essor has no property that of his nearest relatives is taken,
and is suffered to be taken away unmolested. After the excitement
is somewhat over, these horses are bought back by the relatives of
the offender, each giving two, three, or more as the case happens,
which they hand over to him, who in the course of time gets the most
of his property returned.
All smaller quarrels or misdemeanors are paid in the same way,
though not so high, but they never strike or kill each other, yet are
addicted to using personal abuse and invective freely. Our gentle-
man in charge of that nation states that he has seen the two principal
bands of Crow Indians, over 200 lodges, abusing and throwing stones
at each other all day, the Yellowstone River being between them.
No damage could happen, as the missiles could not be thrown a
fourth of the distance, yet not a shot was fired, although balls would
reach, and this force was headed by the two principal chiefs of that
DENto] THE ASSINIBOIN 455
nation. In all the regulations of these Indians (the Crows) we can
discern great natural goodness of heart, and absence of any useless
barbarity and bloodshed except with regard to their enemies, the
males of whom they kill and cut to pieces, but never kill women and
children, wliereas the Assiniboin, Sioux, and Blackfeet kdl every-
thing. Very few feuds from polygamy result in death, but should it
so luippen the other would be punished. If the favorite wife had been
killed, the least the other wife expected would be a tomahawking,
or an arrow shot into her, perfectly regardless as to whether death
would be the consequence or not. Women among Indians are bought,
paid for. and are the property of the purchaser the same as his
horses. Their li,ves are of course more valuable than those of
animals, and every Indian regrets the loss of his woman. Yet when
he has bought them he expects them to do their duty, not quarrel nor
render his lodge disagreeable, or if so they must ex2)ect to be severely
punished.
Their lives are not. however, considered as valuable as men, nor
are they ever so much mourned for. When not bought, or unmarried,
the killing of a woman never happens and would be a great disgrace
to any man, though after marriage they are subject to the jjenalty of
death from diilerent causes in which the man thinks he is justified.
Private debts are never settled by the chief, nor private disputes
by council. Advice may be given and taken, frequently is, though
the usual mode of settling trivial quarrels is by payment, and an
invitation to a feast. Everything except loss of life or personal
chastisement can be paid for among these Indians.
Game Laws, or Rights of the Chase. — The roving tribes subsist
by hunting buffalo, and these animals being constantly on the move,
they are obliged to move after them. Therefore no particular section
of country is aiDpointed to each as a hunting district.'- There are,
however, certain regulations with regard to the hunting of these ani-
mals which may as well be recorded here. A lodge or a few lodges
have no right to establish and hunt within 6, 8, or 10 miles from
a large camp, as by this the buffalo w^ould be continually kept out
of the range of the latter, and a few people be the cause of distress
and starvation to the many. Therefore these obstructions are re-
moved by the soldiers. When hunting by surround has been agreed
upon, individual hunting is stopped for the same rea.son, and has met
with explanation. This is also the duty of the soldiers. Hunting
deer, elk, beaver, etc., being of little consequence to these Indians,
each one exei'cises his pleasure in regard to these occupations. No
right to any section of country is claimed by any person to the ex-
^- The statement here militates against any claim of private ownership of hunting
grounds among these tribes.
456 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ANN. 46
elusion of Others. Should an Indian wound a deer and not follow,
and another pursue and kill it. the former would have no right to
either skin or meat, having relinquished that right by abandoning
the wounded animal. But should he be following and arrive where
the other has killed it, the hide and half the meat would be liis share.
As a general rule he who draws the first blood of the animal is en-
titled to the hide. This is often difficult to settle when large buf-
falo surrounds are made on horseback with the bow and arrow.
Several hundreds of animals are slain in the course of an hour or
so, and some have the arrows of different Indians in them. Each
Indian, by his own mark, knows his arrow, but the matter of dis-
pute is whose arrow struck first? Therefore who is entitled to the
hide?
All that prevents this from being often the cause of serious quar-
rels is that in large hunts a sufficient number or more is generally
killed than they can or do skin, and in smaller hunts the same con-
fusion does not occur. A wounded animal is also mostly jDursued
until killed, and others usually pass by those that are stopped or
have arrows sticking into them. With regard to the meat all In-
dians are liberal. In a large camp at least one-third of the men
have no horses that they can catch. There are also a good many
old. infirm widows, etc., all of whom must be fed. Every one who
can. men and women, turn out and follow the horsemen to the hunt ;
and, even while the hunt is going on at a distance, commence cut-
ting up the first buffalo they come to. The hide is taken off', and
laid aside with the arrow found in it. The tongue and four of tlie
choicest pieces are laid on the hide. This is the portion of him who
killed it; and the rest, which is the greater part of the animal, is
divided among those who skin it. This operation is going on with
numbers of buffalo at the same time, and by this division of labor
the hunters and all are ready to pack home their hides and meat
nearly as soon as the hunt is finished. In this way the hunters get
as many hides and as much meat as they can pack, and those who
liave not killed, as much meat as they want. "Wliatever hides are re-
maining are eiven awav to those who have no horses to hunt with,
and other poor people, and all are satisfied and provided for. The
soldiers' lodge and others in camp who have remained to guard the
property in the absence of the greater body of people are each sup-
plied with meat by those who have been at the liunt. Feasting is
then commenced, and kept up day and night until meat has become
scarce, when another hunt follows. This method of hunting is con-
tinued until they have hides and meat enough.
denig] the assiniboin 457
Indian Trade
There is no doubt that the Indian trade has promoted the general
cause of civilization. Even within our recollection, tribes of Indians,
from being bloodthirsty robbers, have changed to orderly and civil
people. A foundation has been laid, and the road jjaved toward the
civilization of the prairie tribes, but nothing more. Stationary In-
dians have been still further advanced. The few ideas of justice
that are beginning to be develojjed and the verj- first dawn of the
light of knowledge perceptible are in consequence of their traffic and
communication with the white trader. The introduction of firearms,
articles of clothing, utensils, and other articles manufactured by
the whites must tend to enlarge their ideas, set them to thinking, to
show them their uncultivated state, and to implant a desire to im-
prove. Nevertheless their progress is slow, more so with the Assini-
boin than with any other nations. They adhere with tenacity to old
customs and superstitions, which is vexatious and discouraging; but
the Sioux, Mandan, Gros Ventres, Cree, and Chippewa are undoubt-
edly much improved. The firm of Pierre Chouteau, Jr., & Co., for-
merh- the American Fur Co.. has for many years conducted the trade
with all the Indians of the Missouri and its tributaries, from Council
Bluffs to the headwaters of the Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers.
The supplies for the trade are brought up each spring and summer
from St. Louis by steamboat and distributed at the different forts
along the Missouri River as far as Fort Union, mouth of the Yellow-
stone: from which point they are transported with keel boats to
Fort Benton, near the mouth of Maria River, in the Blackfoot coun-
try. From these forts or depots the merchandise is carried into the
interior in different ways, to wherever the Indians request trading
houses to be established.
The traders generally bear the character of trustworthy men and
the nature of the barter for robes and other skins is such that the
Indian receives what he considers an equivalent for his labor or he
would not hunt. There is no way in the nature of the business by
which an Indian can be made to hunt, nor any means of getting his
skins without paying a fair price. Should the merchandise be placed
too high to be easily purchased by them they would and can dis-
pense with nearly all the articles of trade. On the contrary should
the price be too low the business could not be continued; the pros-
pects of gain not being equivalent to the risk of the adventure or
capital employed it would lie abandoned. Consequently a medium
is and must be established whereby are secured the advantage and
comfort of the Indian and a tolerably fair prospect of gain for the
trader. The trade, when carried on without com])etition, is in many
respects a highly respectable and important occupation. Therefore
88253°— 30 30
458 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ann. :,
tile Hudson's Bay Co. have received the title of honorable from the
way in which they conduct it; but it is only because they are alone
that they are able to conduct it in this orderly manner.'-' The Indian
ti-ade does not admit of competition. The effects of strong rival
companies have been more injurious and demoralizing to the Indians
than any other circumstance that has come within our knowledge,
not even excepting the sale of ardent spirits among them. This we
could easily prove, but as no monopoly can be allowed by the nature
of our govei-nment it is useless. When the American Fur Co. were
alone in the country a trader's word or promise to the Indians was
sacred, the Indians loved and respected their traders, and still do
some of the old stock, but since corruption has been carried on we
look in vain for that reliance on and good feeling toward traders
which was once the pride of both Indian and white.
The manner in which the trade is conducted in its operations is
this :
A party of Indians, many or few, leave their camp for the trading
post, packing on dogs and horses all their buffalo robes and other
skins. When within a mile or two of the houses, they stop and send
a few persons to the trader with an account of how many persons
their party is composed of, how many skins, etc., they have, and all
general news. These are furnished with tobacco and sent back with
an invitation for the party to come to the house or fort. If a leading
chief is then with a large party, the American flag is raised in the
fort and cannon fired when he arrives. On arrival they are received
at the fort gate by the interpreter, who conducts them to a large
reception room. The dogs, horses, etc., are unpacked and each
Indian takes charge of his own skins in the same room. They
are then smoked (with the pipe), feasted on coffee, bread, corn,
etc., after which the principal men and chiefs are called into the
public office, when they are counciled with by the gentleman in
charge. Speeches on both sides are made, and if the Indians have
any complaints to make they now state them. The general situation
of the camp and trade is adverted to, prospects mentioned, and prices
of goods stated, with all other matters relating to their affairs. WTien
this is finished the store is opened and the trade commenced. Several
Indians can trade at the same time with different traders, handing
their robes and skins over the counter, and receiving immediate pay-
ment in such articles as they wish. When all are done, a small pres-
ent of ammunition and tobacco is given them and in a day or two
they leave for their camp.
The place of outfit being in St. Louis, all returns of buffalo robes
and other furs are taken there also every spring and summer in
■^^ Perhaps this title has beea bought, but at all events they deserve it.
DKNIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 459
Mackinaw boafe made at each fort for the purpose, and manned by
the Toyageurs who came up on the steamboat the year previous. The
risks are numerous, both in bringing up the supplies in steamers and
in taking down the returns in Mackinaws. In the spring of 1819 this
company lost two steamboats in bringing up the supplies, one burned
with the cargo at St. Louis and the other snagged and sunk. Also
the Mackinaws down are often snagged and sunk, swamped, or the
robes wetted by rain and leakage. The loss of an ordinary boatload
of robes would be $10,000, and every year losses more or less are in-
curred in some way. From experience we know that the chance of
loss is equal to that of gain in a given period of 10 years, yet should
everything prove fortunate for a length of time money would be
made.
All men of family who turn their attention to hunting and collect-
ing skins and robes are shrewd and sensible enough in the trading
of them, sometimes too much so for some of the traders. linowing
the value of merchandise and of what kind they stand in need, they
make their calculations of purchases before they leave their homes
and any additional article the}' can beg or otherwise get is so much
additional gain. They do not purchase useless articles. Goods of
all kinds having stated prices enables them to deal to a fraction,
nevertheless they will quibble and beat down the price if possible,
even in the least thing, and are generally successful in getting some-
thing out of the trader in this way.
As for their debts, they will not pay. An Indian does not con-
tract a debt actually with the intention of deceiving; but before he
has the means to pay, new wants arise, his family wants clothing,
he, ammunition, etc.; in short, he is always in need, consequently
never in a situation to pay. Therefore they use every argument to
get clear of the debt, many of which are very ingenious, and if none
will answer, say they will not pay and that the trader has no business
to trust them. This being the case, but few credits are made. When-
ever their wants are too great, or means too small to enable them to
hunt, the articles are given them, though not credited. In the few
instances where credits are made the Indians keep no accounts what-
ever of them, their object being to forget them as soon as possible;
until they have their memory i-efreshed of the disagreeable fact by
a reference of the clerk to his blotter. Our books are full of unpaid
debts of 20 years' standing, which would make a handsome fortune
if the value could be realized. There is no worse pay in the world,
and a credit is considered lost as soon as given, or if afterwards the
trader receives half pay he considers himself very fortunate. This
being the case, no runners are employed to collect, as in the Missis-
sippi trade. As they (the Indians) are not honest, neither are they
sober, nor moral, but have discretion for their own advantage.
460 TEIBES OF THE ■UPPER MISSOITRI [ETn. ann. 46
The tariff of exchanges is made with the double view of securing
the profit of the trader and encouraging the Indians to hunt. Were
a gun, an ax, or a kettle, for instance, rated at too high a price, then
one of these articles would be made to serve the purposes of several
lodges by turns, or should ammunition be sold too dear only as many
animals would be killed as would be sufficient to feed their families,
and no more skins traded than sufficient to meet their most pressing
necessities. Such proceedings would lead to the abandonment of the
trade as not profitable. The expenses of this business are enormous,
the risk great, the capital invested half a million dollars, and more
than 300 people employed ; and yet a good northwest gim is sold for
six robes or $18, the cost of which is $9.67. As a general rule, all
goods are sold at an average profit of 200 per cent on original cost.
The cost of buffalo robes in merchandise is about $1.35 in cash and
we estimate the expenses in men, forts, animals, and other disburse-
ments at $1.20 more each robe, which would bring them to $2.65.
Now the best sale made of a large quantity is $3 each. Therefore,
a loss of one or two boats loaded with robes must show a loss on the
outfit.
Traders are very much subject to calls on their charity, both by
persons who really are in want and almost everyone else. All the
roving tribes are great beggars, even if they do not actually stand in
need. But viewing the question only in the light of an act of
charity they are numerous indeed. Unskillful in the treatment of
diseases, the different demands for medicines and attendance are
great, which at all times it is not safe nor expedient to comply with.
The forts are the depositions of all the old, lame, sick, poor, and
feeble; in fact, every one who can not follow the camp, or is of
no use there, is thrown on the hands of the traders, and his house
has often more the appearance of a hospital than a trading establish-
ment. For all this there is no pay, not even thanks nor kind words,
but frequently reproach and revenge if they are told to move off after
recovery. It would appear that the feeling of gratitude is un-
known to the Indian. We believe this to be the case among these.
It does not appear from our actual observation of 21 years, and
pretty correct information of as many more of still an earlier date,
that the principal animals have suffered diminution in the district
of which we treat, viz, fi-om the Sioux country to the Blackfoot, in-
clusive. How numerous they were in former years we do not know, but
understand from old Indians that more buffalo have been seen in
late years than were noticed 50 or 60 years since. It may be that the
range of these animals is becoming more limited from the pressure of
emigration westward. Yet this range is very extensive, reaching
from the Platte to the Saskatchewan and from Red River to the
Rocky Mountains, through all which immense district buffalo are
DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 461
found in great numbers. Out of this question appears to us to
arise another, viz. Is not the decrease of the Indians from diseases
communicated to them through white immigration and commerce,
thereby reducing the number of hunters, equivalent to increasing the
number of buffalo? And does not the remnant of the Indians at
this time require fewer animals to feed, clothe, and provide all their
necessaries, than the multitudes before commerce was established
with them ? We think this view merits consideration.
If the buffaloes diminish, so do the Indians, and the diminution is
not felt. The manner in which they hunted before firearms were
introduced (by driving the buffaloes into pens) was infinitely more
destructive than at present. Hundreds, perhaps thousands, were
necessarily killed when a camp of a few Indians was stationed and
when a small number would have sufficed. That commerce stimu-
lates them to hunt is true, and a great many buffaloes are annually
destroyed expressly for the hides. Yet even this destruction is lim-
ited. An Indian's family can only dress a certain number of hides
during the hunting season. The hides in their raw state are of no
value, and not traded, and can not be packed and carried when they
move, which they are obliged to do in the spring ; therefore no more
are killed than the Indians can handle. Besides, there are but four
or five months when the hair or fur of any animal is seasonable or
mei"chantable and the rest of the year only enough are killed for
meat, clothing, and lodges for their families. As far as we can be
allowed to express an opinion, would say that the Indians by diseases
Ijrought about by commerce, and of late years by white immigration,
will diminish and joerhaps be destroyed as formidable bodies long
before their game. The loss of Indians from smallpox, cholera,
measles, scarlet fever, venereal, fluxes, etc., within our own recol-
lection can not be estimated at less than 15.(100 to 20,000, without
taking into consideration the consequent loss of propagation.
Were the destruction less we think it would have the effect of
increasing these animals so that many must die for want of proper
grazing or be forced to .seek other lands for food. This would rein-
state us in our first position, that it is more probable the small num-
ber of Indians now in existence will disappear before their game,
or at least will be so reduced as not to retard their increase. Immi-
gration in settling the country would banish the buffalo from that
part of it where these movements were going on, and force them to
the alternative of scattering through the settlements and thus be de-
stroyed ; or, being confined and limited in their grazing, they would
die for want of sufficient nourishment. They are a shy animal and
will not remain where they are much troubled. Indian hunting has
not this effect. The Indians do not occupy the proportionate space
462 TEIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ANN. 46
of a town of 100 houses to a county, and in some places not more to a
State of the United States. Moreover, they herd with order, and in
the winter, not being able to remain on the plains where there is no
fuel, and very deep snow, are obliged to place their camps on the
banks of streams and hunt merely the outskirts of these immense
herds.
The increases of buffaloes must be very great. Each cow has a calf
yearly and the fourth year these also have calves. Now, supposing
a band of 4,000 cows to increase for eight years without accident.
The computation would be as follows:
Say increase One-half
one-half cows bulls
4X4=16^-2=8 8
One-half increase 8
Old stock 4
12X4=48
Old stock 12
One-half bulls 8
Total in 8 years 6^000
Now supposing the whole number of buffalo cows in existence to
be 3,000,000, which is certainly not an overestimate, then —
One-half One-Iialf
cows bulls
3X4=12H-2=6 6
One-half increase in 4 years 6
Old stock 3
9X4=36
Stock 9
Bulls 6
Total in 8 years 51,000,000
Making every calculation for their reduction in the many ways
they are killed, or die by accident, and the consequent loss by propa-
gation, yet being so numerous their ratio of increase is too great to
diminish the whole number much by any of these means.
The conclusion is that, in our opinion, both Indians and buffa-
loes, with all other game, would disappear in consequence of white
immigration and occupation, though the Indians, being the smaller
number, would be the first to vanish. Also that commerce, by stim-
ulating the exertions of the hunters, can not increase their labor
beyond what they now perform, and that, being limited, is too small
to hasten the destruction or even diminution of any game as plentiful
as the buffalo. The same argument does not apply to beaver, foxes,
or even elk and deer. Should all the Indians be obliged to live on
elk and deer only, and have no resources but the furs of the beaver
and fox to get their supplies, a diminution of these animals would
DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 463
soon be perceived and destruction follow, because their increase is
not so great, neither were they ever so numerous. They are smaller,
and as more would be required they would therefore soon disappear
before the united hunts of all the Indians. But as they are not as
yet driven to hunt them they do not diminish, except the beaver,
which has been, in this district, destroyed by large bodies of white
trappers. Red foxes are not, we think, so numerous as formerly,
though it may be they are not so much hunted. The trading posts
or houses do not have the effect of diminishing or frightening away
the buffalo any more than the Indian camps.
Their locations are few and huncheds of miles apart, and their
operations confined to within a few miles of their houses. Even
while we are writing thousands of buffalo can be seen by looking out
cf the fort gates, which are quietly grazing on the opposite bluffs
of the Missouri, and yet this post (Fort Union) has been established
27 years. The only good hunting grounds for elk and deer are on
the Yellowstone from 4 to 30 miles from the fort, beyond which
though there are but few Indians the}' are not nearly so numerous.
Beaver and foxes are caught every few days within one-half mile
to 6 miles of the fort, not in numbers, certainly, neither are they
very plentiful anywhere in this district. A trading post in a new
country may have but few buffalo the first and second years and in-
numerable herds the third, or vice versa. There is no rule for this.
The buffalo migrate and return. The other animals are scattered
over an immense region of country, are difficult to kill, must be
hunted separately, which is dangerous on account of enemies, conse-
quently not followed, therefore they are not diminished. Thus no
person can say to a certainty which are the first to disappear.
Perhaps the entire destruction of game would lead to the Indians
devoting their time to agricultural pursuits. It would force them
to do that or starve, but judging from their present indisposition to
work, and tribal organization, great distress would follow the sud-
den disappearance of their game and starvation thin their ranks
before they would ajjply themselves to hard labor. The Indians who
raise corn, etc. (Mandan, Gros Ventres, and Arikara), do not do so
from any scarcity of game or apprehensions on that score, but have
done so beyond the recollection of any trader, or even of themselves.
It appears to be a desii'e to possess something else to eat besides meat,
and a custom handed down to them by their forefathers. Their corn
is entirely different from any raised in the States, and is the real
original maize discovered with the continent, the seed still kept in
its original purity. The labor attendant on planting and raising
these crops is performed by the women, while the men hunt like the
surrounding tribes, work of this description as their present ideas
exist being a disgrace to the males. Several of the other wild
464 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ANN. 46
tribes have for years entertained a desire to cultivate, not because
they apprehend any failure of t;ame, but having become fond o± corn,
potatoes, etc., wish to have them, but can not exert themselves enough
for the purpose.
Commerce not as yet having reached the tribes of vehom we write
except in the form of trade for their furs and skins, the question as
to its ultimate effects, as a cause of civilization, can not by us be
determined, but the effects produced by traffic have had a decided
tendency toward their improvement and advancement by stimulating
their exertions and increasing their knowledge. It must be obvious
to every one who is acquainted with the character and history of
Indians that they have an antipathy to work, that as long as they
can support themselves by hunting they will do so; for through these
means they are enabled to avail themselves of the labor and arts of
Europeans in procuring articles necessary fox their subsistence, in
exchange for their furs and skins. This method being more con-
sonant with their fixed habits, is less toilsome though more dangerous
than civilized occupations. Having clothing, utensils, arms, amuni-
tion, and all kinds of provisions furnished them by the traders
certainly increases their desire to obtain these things, stimulates
them to greater exertions in hunting, but does not lead to a suf-
ficient energy of mind to endeavor to produce these things by a slower
though more certain employment. In the event of a sudden disap-
pearance of game they would be driven to extreme want and thou-
sands would perhaps perish before they would of their own accord
apply themselves to agricultural pursuits.
If no human exertions be made by those in power to instruct them
in the superior advantages of such labors over their present precari-
ous life, they must by a sudden pressure of emigration, and a conse-
quent annihilation of game, become the drudges of the whites, de-
stroyed and degraded by their great banes, whiskey and smallpox.
It is impossible to conceal the rapid strides made by emigration or
its immoral tendency on the Indians, and it would be very unreason-
able to conclude that its destroying effects would so revolutionize the
habits of an uneducated Indian as to meet the emergency. The change
from savage to civilized life and occupations must be gradual, accom-
panied by instruction, education, and practical experiment illustra-
tive of its utility.
The introduction of woolen goods has been of some advantage to
the Indians. It has added to their comfort, cleanliness, and pride,
and has had other good effects; but these alone can not be said to have
much increased their means of subsistence, though other things have.
As long as an Indian is a hunter, his dress must answer that purpose.
There is no fabric of European manufacture clothed in which he
could crawl after game over the plains covered with cactus in summer
DENiG] THE ASSINIBOIN 465
or that would protect his body from freezing in winter. Blankets
can not supply the place of buHalo robes, cloth the place of skin,
boots that of moccasins, in these high latitudes and terrible snow-
storms.
These things are bought for summer and fall wear in their homes
or when traveling, are preferred because they are not damaged by
wet, are gay, soft, and handsome, will make tolerably good undercoats
in winter, will serve for traveling horseback in sunnner and fall. But
the real hunter of the plains must have his buffalo robe coats, mocca-
sins, mittens, and cap, skin leggings, his extra, buffalo robe on his back
and his snowshoes on his feet, or the cold and wind would prove
more destructive to his person than he to the game. The articles in-
troduced by commerce that have increased their means of subsistence
are firearms, horses, knives, kettles, awls, fire, steel, and metallic in-
struments for dressing hides. Besides, the conversation and instruc-
tion received from the traders has increased their knowledge, elevated
their desires, and stimulated their industry. These are some of the
effects of commerce, and this subject will meet with further dis-
cussion through these pages.
We are not aware of any great moral evils consequent on the
trade with Indians in this section. The variations from truth and
deceptions practiced by rival companies are, however, the greatest.
The introduction of ardent spirits has been demoralizing and de-
basing, but has in no great degree tended to the depopulation of the
tribes of whom we write. From a long period of actual observation
and experience can safely say that the whole numljer of deaths aris-
ing from the consequences of intoxicating drink does not amount to
100 during the past 20 years, from and including the Sioux to the
Blackfeet. That it is morally wrong no one will doubt, but this
has been much exaggerated, and can not be reckoned among the
causes of their depopulation. If that cause is sought for it is very
plain in the history of the smallpox, wliich even while we write is
sweeping off the Crow and Snake Indians, upward of 1,200 of whom
have died from that disease contracted on the Platte emigrant trail
last summer. The destruction of Indians from cholera, measles, and
smallpox since that road has been opened has been incredible and
there is no probability of its decreasing. These are the causes of
their depopulation and will be of their entire extinction. The in-
troduction of firearms has been beneficial to the trade, and in some
respects to the Indians. Deer, elk, and smaller game can be killed
when buffalo are not found, and in default of horses to run them the
Indians can support themselves with the gun.
466 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [bth. ann. 4G
The gun is a useful thoujjh not an indispensable implement. The
loss of an Indian horse is easier replaced than that of his gun, as
he could at any time steal the former from his enemies, and to get
the latter would require means to purchase, which have been de-
stroyed by its loss. Also the accident might happen when skins
were of no value or unseasonable. Another advantage in having
a gun is that the means of making a fire are thereby possessed,
which on the j^lains is a matter of great consequence, and a gun
often saves the lives of several travelers. In short, an Indian with
a gun has double the chances of support that one without has.
Should his horse be stolen he can use his gun, and if that is broken
he can use his horse. By firearms a great many smaller animals
are killed, and skins traded which would not otherwise be the case,
though in hunting in bodies or lai-ge camps the gun is not much
used, except when there are but few horses that they can catch.
The posse.ssion of firearms has unquestionably promoted war. Many
arrows may be shot, perhaps all the Indian lias, without doing any
damage unless at very close quarters, whereas at a distance or in
the night guns are effective. It also facilitiites waylaying and kill-
ing their enemies, a manner of which they are remarkably fond, and
could not well be accomplished with arrows, lances, etc., without
nearly equal danger to both parties. Guns and ammunition are
considered the soul of warfare, moi'e so than of the chase, and a
few Indians thus armed are more efficient than a crowd with bows,
lances, and war clubs. So much is this the case that the want of
a sufficient number of guns often delays, and sometimes entirely
stops, a war party.
There is only one way we know of by which the trade could be
placed on a better basis, and that being inconsistent with the prin-
ciples of our Government, is scarcely worth considering. It is
that it should be a monopoly. A charter granted to a body of ef-
ficient people who could give bond to a large amount for their law-
ful prosecution of the trade, and their operations subject to the
revision and examination of a competent board of directors.
Education
There ar« no serious or valid objections on the part of any Indians
with whom we are acquainted to the introduction of schools, agri-
culture, the mechanical arts, or Christianity. We have examined
the subject in all its bearings for upward of 20 years; counseled
with Indians about it; and it appears to us very singular that as
yet the Department or some charitable persons have done nothing
in this respect for the Indians. It is the only way they can be
really benefited, saved, recompensed for territory bought, or ren-
DENIG] THE ASSIISriBOIN' 467
dered useful. It is the only way by which they could eventually be
brought to have some certain source or means of subsistence. They
have often pressed upon us their desire that we should use our exer-
tions to get some mission or school opened among them to instruct
their children in agriculture and the mechanical arts. With this
view we have for years corresponded with the Rev. G. I. De Smet of
the St. Louis University (Jesuit), who intended and perhaps still
intend to commence operations of the kind among them. Not being
of the Catholic persuasion, it is not on that account that the Jesuits
were thouglit by us the most competent for such a purpose, but that
they have more zeal, knowledge, perseverance, and tact to manage
Indians than any others we know of. Their religion is peculiarly
adapted to that purpose.
The imposing rites and ceremonies of the Catholic Church would at
once attract their attention and excite their interest ; afterwards they
could be made to comprehend. However, it is not with the grown
Indians the commencement must be made. The tirst step to be taken
is to stop, as much as possible, their internal wars, and this is rapidly
being accomplished by the treat}^ made at Laramie in 1851, which
has had the etfect of making a general peace between all nations
except the Blackfeet. This peace may suffer interruptions occa-
sionally, by a few being killed, or horses stolen, but these things will
be settled among themselves, and the peace continue, especially if the
Indian agents are particular in enforcing the treaty stipulations.
AVith tlie lilaekfeet a peace must be made in some way and that at
Laramie having proved successful, why not in the same way? They
are very numerous and hostile, and nothing but a large appropriation
judiciously distributed in merchandise could gain the point. After-
wards it might be kept up for a series of years by smaller annuities,
and when the general end is gained these could be discontinued. The
only way to work upon the wild Indian is through his cupidity and
necessities; force is not to be thought of.
This point being gained, establishments should be formed among
each tribe, at the same time receiving a number of their children and
giving them a common English education and as soon as practicable
bringing up these children in agricultural and pastoral pursuits.
Habits of industry should be inculcated as they grow up, and the
field of their operations enlarged when they are grown, by portioning
out lands and providing a market for their surplus stock and produce.
Some of the useful mechanical arts could also be introduced, but only
those that are u.seful in their present condition and growing state.
A century or two may elapse before watchmakers, glass blowers, or
even tailors and shoemakers would be necessary, though a few gun-
smiths, blacksmiths, carpenters, and weavers would find immediate
468 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [BTH. ANN. 46
employment. The principles of the Christian religion would of
course at the same time be taught, but the principal feature of these
establishments, as soon as the boys and girls were able to work, should
be industry, principally in agricultural and pastoral pursuits. The
great errors into which missionaries have fallen are that they make
the observance of religious duties the sole object and neglect the
others.^^ Also their zeal in this induces them to interfere with the
present government, domestic arrangements, and superstitions of the
grown Indians, thereby incurring their enmity, disgust, or revenge.
The present grown-up generation should be left entirely alone, not
interfered with, no attempt made to convert them, or even induce
them to work. It is useless, inexpedient, and subverts the general
ends. The first thing a missionary does is to abuse the Indian for
having a plurality of wives.
Would the good missionary be so charitable as to clothe, feed,
and shelter the supernumerary woman ; should all the Indians follow
his advice and have but one wife ? Will the Indian consent to sepa-
rate his children from their mothers, or to turn both adrift to please
the whim of any man ? This advice is uncharitable, unjust, and can
only be excused on the plea of ignorance of their customs and feel-
ing. The next difference that arises is that the priests take away
all their charms, medicines, and idols, and present them their cross
instead. Now as far as any of these old Indian reprobates can
conceive the idea of the cross, it is nothing more than a different
kind of idol in exchange for theirs. What in the name of common
sense could induce old priests, in every other respect sane and well
informed, to think that by administering baptism and giving an
Indian the symbol of the croas they have thus converted them, we
can not imagine. If the Indians believe anything thereby, it is that
the image or medal possesses some intrinsic supernatural power to pre-
vent them from personal harm or give them success in war, known
to be efficacious by the whites, and is to them in fact nothing more
than a different kind of medicine bird or medicine ball. Can they
(the priests) suppose that an Indian, only a grade al)Ove the level
of the brute in intelligence, could without education form a correct
idea of the ordinance of Baptism, the Incarnation, the Trinity, the
Crucifixion and Atonement and other abstruse points in which even
whites, with all their education, can not agree?
These grown Indians are too ignorant and obstinate to think, too
lazy to work, too proud to be instructed, and their formed habits
too savage and firmly rooted to give way before the meek truths of
the gospel. All such attempts must prove abortive; it is anticipat-
"^ Here Denig mildly protests against the unreasonable emphasis placed on the ob-
servance of religious rites by the missionaries to the exclusion of other duties.
DENia] THE ASSINIBOIN 469
ing by an age what should be their present course among the children.
We would say let all the grown generation die as they have lived,
though before that event took place many of them would have the
satisfaction of seeing their children in comparatively happy and im-
proved conditions. This is the only right beginning. Bring them
up in the proper way, impressing moral truths and industrious
habits when young and fostering the same in maturity. The Gov-
ernment can do this, should do it, and would be extending a charity
to a part of the human race but few sympathize with, and opening a
way for the remnant of aborigines to become a useful and intelligent
people. "We repeat it, there are no objections to this among the
Indians. Proffers of the kind would be readily acceded to by any
tribe, even the Blackfeet, and all sensible traders would assist. It
would not benefit them, might perhaps hurt their business some, and
would in the end lead to its discontinuance. But this is of minor
consideration. We are confident that establishments on the princi-
jjles we have suggested would succeed and answer great ends. But
they must begin with the children as their foundation, not merely for
the observances of religious duties, without combining active agri-
cultural and pastoral pui'suits, with a judicious choice of mechanical
arts.
It does not follow that the Indians should abandon their hunting
altogether to accomplish these ends. Those who wished to hunt
could still do so, as they now do at Red River, and when hunting
failed, as it eventually must when white emigration settles the
coimtry, the Indians would find themselves in a position to live fully
if not more comfortably than before. Some of the money of the
United States could not be applied to a better purpose. One-half of
the amount Congress expends on the repairs of some old bridge would
be sufficient to rear and educate several hmidred children. Indeed,
after the boys and girls had attained the age of 12 to 15 years they
could more than support themselves by their labor. Abstruse studies
or extensive mental acquirements should not be striven for except
with the view of pi'oviding teachers or physicians of their own na-
tion, but generally the rudiments of English education, such as is
taught the peasantry of England, would answer better. Too much
education would produce an unwillingness if not an inability to work.
Physicians of their own people would tend more to banish their
superstitions and encourage these institutions than all the jDreaching
in the world. Correct medical knowledge would be apparent in its
effects, and be the greatest acquirement in the eyes of the Indian.
With its introduction would disappear the host of jugglers, con-
jurers, medicine men, and humbugs that now impoverish and kill
most of their patients. A distinct idea of crime and the necessity of
470 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ann. 46
law would follow. The democratic principles of government already
implanted would assume an effective form and civilization and
Christianity would be the result. To accomplish this present pay-
ments of annuities should not be curtailed, as it would hazard the
ill feelings of the grown Indians who, seeing no immediate benefit
arising, would become dissatisfied with the appropriation of their
funds. Sejjarate appropriations or funds could be raised for the
purpose.
Warfare
The usual cause of war among the prairie tribes is the stealing of
horses. Indians must have horses, can not well live without them,
and will risk everything to obtain them. Moreover, hoi-ses are looked
upon in a measure as public property ; that is, those nations who have
few think they have a right to take them from those who have many.
Whether it is a right or not they do it, and in these expeditions fre-
quently men are killed on both sides. This produces an obligation on
the jjart of the relatives of the deceased to revenge their deaths, and
war continues with various successes on both sides. The occupation
of war is also the most honorable an Indian can follow. The young
men are not noticed, neither can they aspire to the hand of a respecta-
ble young woman, without having distinguished themselves in
war excursions. They 'are taught this when young, and as things
now stand, it is difficult to change. Nevertheless it can be done. Not
immediately', but in the course of a few years. There is always an
opening to the heart of the Indian through his love of gain. Most
chiefs, soldiers, and heads of families are oj^en to bribes. The object
of war in the first place is gain, and the dangers attending it make
it honorable.
This object (gain) must be superseded by an equivalent and the
idea of honor transferred to other sources. Take, for instance, the
Blackfeet, who are the most numerous and bloodthirsty nation on
the upper Missouri. Assemble them in treaty and make a distri-
bution of $25,000 or $30,000 in merchandise among them and
the deputations of other nations with whom a peace is to be concluded.
How would this operate? The soldiers of the camp who would be
appointed to distribute this merchandise are tlie most powerful
party, have generally the raising and leading of war parties, and
would take a liberal share of the presents for themselves. The chiefs
and heads of families would also receive a large amount and the
rest be divided among the young men, warriors, women, etc. The
peace would Ije made, all would be satisfied for the present ; but
unless these payments were continued for a number of years, or until
the benefits of peace were realized and acknowledged, nothing would
be gained. An Indian does not reflect upon what he has received
DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 471
but ■what is yet in store for him. The prospects of an annual repeti-
tion of these presents would induce them to keep the treaty stipula-
tions. Why and how? The soldiers, chiefs, and lieads of families,
whose voices only could make war. are held in check by the pros-
pects of gain, and should any parties be raised would be paid to
stop, or if they continued and stole horses, or killed a few of the
nation with wliom peace had been made, the affair would be paid
for and hushed up on both sides, on account of the coming presents.
The reason why persons killed in time of peace between two na-
tions can be paid for, and privately not, is that in the former case
the voices of all, except the immediate relations of the slain, are
against revenge, inasmuch as it would affect their interests with re-
gard to the presents granted by the treaty. This operation going on
in both nations at the same time leaves the relatives too few to effect
a revenge, and the dishonor is evaded by the compulsion. In the
course of a few years all old causes for revenge would be forgotten.
By visiting each other and exchanging property, horses (the usual
cause of war) would become more equally divided, by being bought
by those who wish them, instead of stolen. Acquaintance with each
other's language, intermarriages, and other ties would follow, and the
advantage of receiving a large supply of merchandise without the
labor of hunting skins for it, together with the honor and increase of
power of the soldiers, by having the distribution of this merchan-
dise, must effectually throw the popular voice against war. The
voices of the women, though not consulted, would be felt. They are
vain, fond of dress, and would, of course, be in favor of the treaty
which enables them to gratify this passion in a greater degree by
furnishing them with clothing gratis. Therefore war would be dis-
continued by them, and the hand of a peaceable man preferred to one
whose conduct militated against their own interests and those of their
parents. For we apprehend that the favor warriors find in the eyes
of the women and their parents is the result of their success, not the
glory in their bravery.
It is the horses stolen from their enemies that gives them wealth
to purchase any woman they please, and the father-in-law is anxious
to have a son-in-law who can at any time replace his loss in hoi-ses.
Indians are poor; that is, they are always in need of articles they
can not purchase, and getting a supply gratis is of great advantage
to them. The power of these annuities is great, and could be wielded
with sufficient force to bring different bands to war upon their own
people, and compel them to preserve the treaty stipulations.
We do not think that the display of military force on treaty
grounds is either necessary or politic. If to inspire a feeling of fear
be the object, it would require the presence of three or four thousand
472 TRIBES OF THE TIPPER MISSOURI [eth. ann. 46
men to effect it with the Blackfeet, and even then, there would be
great danger of collision with the troops who would endeavor to
enforce military regulations when they can not be understood and
are not required. Neither would Indians be induced to assemble
when such a body of armed men are brought without their con-
sent, or if they did, it would be with hostile feelings, and they
could give no assistance to the commissioners. A lesser force, or
one inadequate to present the idea of coercion, would incur their
contempt, as they would necessarily conclude that the Government
had sent all the men they could raise, and the few present would be
imposed upon.
Indians do not like to be forced into measures, the utility of which
has yet to be made apparent. Besides, the spirit of treaty is com-
promise, not force, as would be implied by these. proceedings. It
must be a voluntary act on the part of the Indians, for and in con-
sideration of a certain sum, to obtain the stipulations. Again it is
entirely on the present state of the Indian and their government
to carry out this treaty we depend after the military force be with-
drawn. Their organization as pointed out in these pages shows them
capable of preserving order among themselves on these occasions,
and a few good, patient commissioners and sensible traders and in-
terpretei's would secure what is necessary when force or appearance
of it would fail. If anything more was added it might be a few
military officers in full uniform and a good band of music. After
satisfaction the treaty would operate in detail as has been mentioned,
and the next best thing would be to take deputations of the principal
men of each nation to Washington, where they could council with
their Great Father (the President), and at this time the power and
disposition of the Government could be exhibited without giving
offense, which in their return among their people would be made pub-
lic and the proper feeling instilled. But Indians should never be
treated with at the seat of (Jovernment for many reasons.
The principal is that no deputation of prairie tribes could be
taken as the general voice, and even then would not think themselves
treated with on fair grounds — would agree to any and everything
and afterwards say they were forced to do it. Large bodies of
whites in the interior and on treaty grounds would necessarily be
very expensive, and are inexpedient, as pointed out. though the sup-
port of a great many Indians would be very little. They bring their
supplies along, hunt their way back, and but a few groceries would
be sufficient to feed them during the short stay the business required.
Another thing not to be overlooked is that the assembling of differ-
ent nations in a body at a certain point is a great affair to them.
It forms an epoch, a date, an event, to be talked of for years. Each
DKNIO] THE ASSINIBOIN 473
nation on these occasions feel themselves bound to be polite, liberal,
and attentive to stranfiers. Hostilities for the time are laid aside or
forgotten, and the whole active force of the nations on whose ground
the treaty is held is put in motion to keep order. If the question of
buying their lands is not introduced, all goes on well, but on this
subject they are jealous and suspicious to a great degree.
In no instance should the principal of an Indian fund be placed
in the hands of any member of these prairie tribes to be distributed
by him to his people. They can not appreciate the use and expendi-
ture of money ; neither could they with safety be placed in charge of
any large amount of goods for distribution.
If handed to the chief, they would be given by him to a few of his
immediate relations and friends, and the rest of the camp would get
nothing. The present way of distributing annuities is the best, if not
the only one that could give general satisfaction, and is thus con-
ducted. The whole amount of merchandise is separated into as
many portions as there are bands in the nation, according to the num-
ber of lodges in each band. One of the bands is then visited by the
Indian agent, who, with the advice and consent of the chief of the
nation, chooses therefrom four to six soldiers and dresses them. The
whole band, men, women, and children, are formed into a semicircle
with these soldiers in front, and that portion of the annuities in-
tended for the band is laid in front of the soldiers, who separate it
equally among all, retaining, however, a reasonable share for them-
selves. This appears to give general satisfaction. We can suggest
no change in the existing laws that might benefit the Indians, unless
it be that Indian agents should be people who have a correct knowl-
edge of Indian character. If it be really the object of the Govern-
ment to benefit this race of people their agents should be chosen from
experienced traders or others who have and still reside with them and
are well acquainted with their manners and customs.
How can a stranger who perhaps never saw an Indian, merely
by counseling with a few during his short annual visit, know their
wants, study their welfare, or make satisfactory reports to head-
quarters? Besides, so much being dependent on these agents, their
term of office should not be limited to a change in the administra-
tion, as at present. It is unlike other offices and requires many
years' close application and constant residence among Indians to
be of any real benefit to learn in what manner they can be better
regulated or to carry out any series of measures the Government
may wish to introduce. The pay of these agents is also inadequate,
and there are too few to be of much service. The Sioux Nation
alone is numerous and widely extended enough to admit of an
agency; the Mandan, Gros Ventres, and Arikara another; the As-
88253°— 30 31
474 TEIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOLTEI [eth. ann. 46
siniboin and Crows a third, and the Blackfeet a fourth. As it at
present stands, one man is appointed for all this, and the consequence
is some of them are neglected, if not the greater number. It can
not be otherwise. The nations are situated hundreds of miles apart
and each scattered over an immense district. Even one nation can
not be collected, consulted with, annuities distributed, and all busi-
ness settled in a less time than six months and often more. Should
the present officer do nothing but travel he could not make the round
of the whole in a year.
Property
The personal property of these tribes consists chiefly of horses.
A man's wealth is estimated by the number of these animals he owns.
Besides which they have their lodges, guns, clothing, and cooking
utensils. Possession of an article of small value is a right seldom
disputed, if the article has been honestly obtained, as their laws of
retaliation are too severe to admit of constant quarrels. But horses
being their principal aim, possessing them is nothing without force
to defend. To explain this fully it will be necessary to give a few
examples of the different kinds of rights and their tenure. Rights
to property are of the following description: Articles found, articles
made by themselves, stolen from enemies, given them, and bought.
Two Indians traveling together, one discovers a lost horse and points
it out to the other, who pursues and succeeds in catching it. Now
the one who made the discovery claims a portion of the horse on the
ground that had he not seen it or not shown it to the other most likely
it would not be in his possession. The other, therefore, to extinguish
this claim, would be obliged to pay some article equivalent to half the
value of the horse, which in case he refused to do would end in the
horse being killed on the spot, and the dispute terminated. The same
rule would apply to finding a gun, but smaller articles would not
attract attention enough to produce a quarrel. An article is con-
sidered lost when the owner has abandoned the search.
All clothing, skins, arms, etc., made by themselves are the sole
property of those who made them, and this is the only general right
among them that admits of no dispute. To take away such things
by force would be reckoned a mean action ; would be discountenanced
individually by all; and the perpetrator would fall into general dis-
grace, among both men and women. When horses are stolen from
enemies the case is different. Suppose seven Indians conjointly steal
45 horses in the night from their enemies. They would drive them
off in a body until beyond reach of pursuit and then each would lay
claim, catch, and keep as many as he could manage and defend.
No equal division or anything like it would take place. Men of
desperate character would take the greater part and leave milder
DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 475
or less strongly supported Indians with one or two and some would
get none. To do this sometimes two to four will combine against
the others and take the largest share, but one or two men seldom
carry this so far as to incur the resentment of the rest of the party.
It generally depends upon the number of relatives each has with
him, or his force in camp, before either of which those not so strongly
supported must give way. Quarrels often occur about these divi-
sions, and horses in dispute are killed or stolen in the night by those
who have few from those who have many before their return home.
An Indian never gives away anything without some expectation of
a return or some other interested motive. If one observes another in
possession of a fine horse he would like to have he will take the occa-
sion of some feast or dance and publicly present him with a gun or
something of value, flattering his bravery, praising his liberality, and
throwing out general hints as to his object, though not directly men-
tioning it. He will let the matter rest thus for some days, and if the
other does not present him with the horse will demand his gift re-
turned, which is done.
One will sometimes give a horse to another for some purpose or
equivalent and allow him to keep it; but should the receiver give the
horse to a third person the original owner will often claim him and
take him back, giving for his reason that he did not bestow him on
that person, and although he had presented him to the first, he should
have kept him and not given him away to another. Smaller gifts
are regarded in the light of loans and generally paid for in some
way. They may be considered as exchanges of necessities which they
take this way to effect.
One would think that an article bought by them or of them should
be the property of the purchaser, but this is not always the case. If
an Indian buys a horse from another and it is stolen the first night or
two afterwards, or lamed the first race, part, and sometimes the
whole, of the payment must be returned to pacify the loser.
If a gun is bought and it bursts or is broken shortly afterwards,
in like manner a refimd of a portion of the purchase money would
be required. And worse still if the gun in the act of bursting had
crippled the man's hands, which is often the case, the accident would
also be paid for by him who sold the gun. These things are so well
known and anticipated among them that the vendor immediately
after the accident or loss invites the loser to a feast and by the pay-
ment of something settles the matter. This has tlie effect of tlieir
having but few bargains or dealings with each other, so much so
that a horse bought and paid for by us from them can not be resold
to one of their own people if they know it, because the original
owner will take it if he sees it in the hands of one of his own people
and that person is in a situation to be thus imposed upon. Most of
476 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [bth. ann. 40
their horses having had several owners, they are always a precarious
gift or purchase. Property obtained by gambling is also held by a
very slight tenure, so much so that the loser has many chances in
his favor and these operations are much fairer among them than
among whites.
Robberies of each other on any large scale are seldom attempted.
They would attract the notice and induce the interference of the
camp soldiers and relations of the robbed, and bloodshed would be
the consequence. Infractions of smaller rights are left to individual
settlement and are paid for. What prevents impositions in smaller
matters is the disgrace and disgust that would fall upon any man
guilty of petty infringements of personal rights.
With regard to the Indian of the British dominions applying to
an agent of the United States for the payment of a private debt
contracted by a north Briton, a resident of Hudson Bay, the prob-
able operation of his mind was as follows : " All whites are very par-
ticular in endeavoring to collect their debts from Indians, and the
richer are less generous. White traders are interlopers. The country,
game, and all else in the territory belong to the Indians. The whites
have no claims upon our generosity; are entitled to nothing without
I^aying for it. Now a white man owes me, and from liim I can
get nothing. Indian agents are sent expressly to see justice done
the Indians, are responsible and sensible, besides being rich and
powerful. He will perhaps allow me my claim, or interpose his
authority with the Hudson Bay people to make them pay. It is
at least worthy of a trial, for if I gain nothing I lose nothing."
Most Indians of the British possessions in America, at least the
Cree and Chippewa, are a great deal farther advanced in knowledge
of every kind than those of whom we write. They have tolerably
correct ideas of right and wrong and are famed for the shrewdness
they exhibit in all kinds of dealings, to their own advantage. It is
not even likely that if this Indian claim was not settled by the agent
spoken to, he therefore abandoned it, but it is more probable that he
dunned every one of the Hudson Bay traders for years until he got
some remuneration. We have known an Indian at Foi't Union to
claim payment for carrying out three bundles belonging to one of our
people when the fort was on fire. This demand was made 12 years
after the circumstance happened. They never forget a claim on
whites, but never i-ecoUect one upon themselves.
Territorial Rights
How right to territory originally accrued can perhaps be learned
by the way in which it is here discussed. None of these prairie tribes
claim a special right to any circumscribed or limited territory. Their
DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 477
arguments are these, and have been before mentioned. All the
prairie or territory in the West (known to them) and now occupied
by all the Indians was created by Wakoilda for their sole use
and habitation. To maintain this they state the entire fitness of
the Indian for the life of a hunter; his good legs, eyes, and other
qualifications which they do not allow to any other persons. The
suitableness of the prairie for the support of great numbers of
buffalo, and the wooded streams for smaller game, together with the
adaptness of the game to their wants in meat, clothing, lodges, etc.
All this is to prove their general right to the whole of the hunting
grounds, where buffalo are to be found and Indians stationed. Now
each nation finds themselves in possession of a portion of these lands,
necessary for their preservation. They are therefore determined to
keep them from aggression by every means in their power. Should
the game fail, they have a right to hunt it in any of their enemies'
country, in which they are able to protect themselves.
It is not land or territory they seek in this but the means of
subsistence, which every Indian deems himself entitled to, even
should he be compelled to destroy his enemies or risk his own life
to obtain it. Moreover, they are well aware that the surrounding
nations would do the same and sweep them off entirely if they could
with impunity, and each claims the same right. Possession is noth-
ing without power to retain, and force to repel, and to defend with
success they must limit themselves to a certain extent of territory,
for by separating their force too widely they would be cut off in
detail. By these different necessary locations the country has been
parceled out, each holding what they can with safety occupy, and
making any encroachments they are able. They claim the land as
theirs because that portion affords the means of subsistence with
more security than by moving elsewhere they could procure. To
sell their lands, they say, would be the same as to sell their means
of living, for by moving elsewhere large bodies of enemies would
require to be displaced, which could not be effected without great
loss and perhaps failure. Indians who cultivate, such as the Mandan,
Gros Ventres, and Arikara, only claim as their own the small patches
that they till, and their right even to these (individually) only exists
as long as the}' are occupied by the crops of the cvdtivator.
Should he fence it in and work it every year no one would dispute
his right to do so, but if the land be left idle some other would plant
upon it. It is in fact merely loaned from the general district for the
purpose of him who wishes to cultivate. There being no scarcity of
land, however, no difficulties occur on this point. From this view it
would appear that their right to territory is nothing more than
defending that portion on which they are located as necessary for
478 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [bth. ANN. 46
their support. Invasion of a neighboring tribe's country wouhl only
be the consequence of famine or .scarcity of game in their own and
would be looked upon by them in the light of extending their hunting
after the buffalo (whicii is the property of all Indians) into another
part of the great plains intended by Wakofida for their sup-
port, being aware at the same time that they risk their lives by so
doing. The foregoing are the outlines of the arguments they use.
It is because they are at war that their lands appear to be distinct
portions assigned to each nation, although between each there are
several hundred miles of neutral ground, the nature of their forces
not admitting of closer approximation. Were all at peace it would
present the feature of one great estate on which each would rove and
hunt when and where he pleased, and what is now neutral would be-
come hunting grounds. But as long as hunting was their sole occupa-
tion no claims would be set up by any man to a certain portion of
land.
They must become stationary, acquire property, real estate, before
land becomes of any value in their estimation, further than the space
it affords to game of all kinds to live and increase for their benefit.
Primogenitube
There is no general or fixed law of primogeniture. The eldest
son is, however, mostly a favorite, and although the custom is not
universal we have known instances of legacies left. If the parent
be a chief he will, if time permits, present his eldest son with his
medal when he anticipates death, if his son is of sufficient age to
wear it. They are anxious to be succeeded in their office by some
of their children, and the eldest would soonest be of sufficient age
to take upon himself the responsibility. But unfortunately for the
wishes of the parent the office or station of chief does not depend
upon the law of primogeniture, of any other, but upon the will of
the greater part to be ruled by him who is thus designated, and the
capacities and standing of the applicant. The chief whose speech
is recorded on page 598 presented his medal to his eldest son when
on his death bed in the presence of 20 or 30 persons of his band,
intimating his desire that his son should take his place and " follow
in the footsteps of his father." The son not being the popular choice,
another was appointed and the medal was left in our possession,
where it yet remains, though his son was of age at his father's (la-
Chef-qui-parle) death six years ago, and is living yet, and has pro-
gressed no further than becoming a camp soldier.
Most of these Indians die violent deaths, either by war, accidents
of the chase, or rapid diseases, and thus have no opportunity to
dispose of their property, yet even when they have time do not often
DENio] THE ASSINTBOIN' 479
do it, owing to the difficulty of having these requests fulfilled after
their demise. The dying request of a chief or warrior, if he niak&s
any, is that his favorite horse, or sometimes two or three horses,
shall be killed at his grave. Other horses, his gun, etc., are some-
times given to his relatives as bequests, and this gift contains an
intimation to go to war after his death. The death of a warrior
entails revenge, from whatever cause his death arises — sickness
or accident. The horses, therefore, there bequeathed are put in
mourning by having their mane, tail, and ears cut off and their body
smeared over with white clay. These, with the guns and other
weapons bequeathed, are taken on the first war expedition by the
persons who received them. We have been appointed executor of
the will of an Indian who died at Fort Union some years since
from a wound through the bowels. A short time before his death
(about three hours) he called us to his bedside and made a distribu-
tion of some horses and other property to be kept for his children's
use, and desired his best running horse to be shot on the spot where
he was to be buried, while he was yet living, which with the other
requests were attended to.
There can be no doubt that if they were certain their dying re-
quests would be fulfilled the custom of bequeathing their property
when the circumstances of their death admitted it would be more
general: but they know that the customs are such that after death
all property must pass into the hands of strangers, as will be stated
under the head of Death and Its Consequences. Even when dying
bequests are made they are not always carried out. The horses and
other property thus given to their families are given to others who
cut their legs and bodies and cry a great deal at the interment, or
rather on the occasion of their placing the body in a tree, as they
usually do. When the great chief of the Crows, Long Hair, died
no less than four hands were held out by four different Crow Indians,
each offering to cut off two fingers to obtain the chief's war horse
that he ordered to be killed upon his grave, but their offers were
rejected and the horse was killed.
Crime
Crime of any and all kinds among them is considered an offense
to the individual and as such liable to punishment by the person
offended. But no idea of a moral offense toward the Great Spirit
is exhibited or consequent future punishment feared. All our en-
deavors to extract from them even an acknowledgment of the greatest
crimes being morally wrong have been unavailing. They can not
see that any act of theirs should meet with punishment after death
because they think they have just cause for these acts, and also they
480 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ANN. 46
do not believe in future punishments at all. To illustrate the first
position, we will present their arguments on the greatest of crimes,
murder. An Indian never commits what in his mind would be equal
to murder in our estimation. There is no inducement in any case for
them to mui'der a man for his horses, wife, or any other property
they possess, for this step, instead of securing these advantages,
would operate in quite an opposite direction, making it necessary
for the murderer to relinquish his own property and that of his near-
est.relatives to pay the damage; also forfeiting his own life and
becoming an outcast. And this is the reason why their disputes so
seldom terminate in bloodshed, as the prospect of loss is far greater
than that of gain. When they do kill among themselves it is in
consequence of some qunrrel about property, or about something,
and this they are then in a manner obliged to do, to save their own
life. It then becomes self-defense or a necessary action induced by
the principle of fear and their constant habit of carrying and raising
arms. In no instance does an Indian take life, except that of his
enemies, without provocation.
A horse, a woman, a gun, or any other article ma}- be the cause
of a quarrel, and thi'eats and menaces pass which place each under
the necessity of destroying the other to save himself. They say
they can not do otherwise, and often regret the necessity. To kill
an enemy, instead of being reckoned an act ungrateful to Wakohda,
is thought by them to be highly pleasing, therefore his aid
to accomplish this and even private revenge is sought in prayers,
fasts, sacrifices, etc. All mankind have, they think, an equal right
to live, and an equal right to preserve that right, and it is the sense
of this self-preservation that compels them to remove any danger
in their way, such as wild beasts, enemies, or any of their own
people whom they are aware are only waiting an opportunity
against themselves ; and it is also this right to life and fear of being
assassinated that compels them to take every advantage to accom-
plish the destruction of the danger pending. We have questioned
several Indians on this subject who have killed their own people
and all have led to the same subject, viz, the necessity imposed upon
them by quarrels to kill or be killed. To act otherwise when all
peaceful means have failed would be considered as the height of
foolishness and cowardice. An Indian does not take life from mere
thirst for blood, nor, as has been stated, to acquire property, as in
either case no advantage would be gained. When they waylay and
murder whites they believe they are doing right; that whites have
no business in their country, and are therefore looked upon in the
light of enemies.
They do not kill the white traders among each nation, or in the
few instances they have done so it was from some motive of revenge,
DBNIO]
THE ASSINIBOIN" 481
right in their estimation and in conformity to their law of retaliation.
AVhen the Blackfeet kill the whites at the Crow Fort it is from no
enmity to the whites as a people, for they could if they wished kill
plenty in their own country; it is that they do not wish the Crows,
their enemies, to have traders who supply them with the means of
killing them, by trading guns, ammunition, etc. The same reasoning
on their own side is the cause of their friendship toward their own
traders. Eevenge, the great principle of destroying life, is strongly
contended for by the Indians as necessary to their existence, both
individually and as a body. The fear of the consequences of dispute
prevents it, or generally is settled amicably by payment. There being
no competent judiciary to try and punish crime renders it necessary
for each one to retaliate, or they would be liable to constant imposi-
tion. That revenge among them supplies the want of courts of
justice, prisons, and public executions. If the revenge is dispropor-
tionate to the offense, it can not be helped ; their habits, customs, and
organization all have that tendency. In all this they see no offense
to Wakonda nor any idea of moral wrong, even if they did
believe in future punishment, which they do not, yet they know it
is an offense to the individual and all his relatives, incurring their
retaliation, which is the only punishment they expect.
Inasmuch as the warrior believes that by prayers, fasts, personal
inflictions of pain and sacrifices they can secure the aid of Wakoiida
to effect the death of their enemies or for the gratification of private
revenge, by the same train of reasoning it must be manifest that the
soul of a warrior must occupy a high degree of happiness in Indian
paradise for accomplishing these acts through his instrumentality.
The death of a man who killed another would suffice if it were
possible to stop there, but we have said enough on this subject to
show they have no power to stop. The taking of the second
life produces an obligation on the part of the kindred of the de-
ceased to revenge, and retaliation is continued. The original cause
of quarrel is lost in the greater necessity of defending life on either
side. Therefore in their yet deplorable state of ignorance the crime
of murder as an act of the same nature in our ideas can have no
existence among them, neither can anything be morally wrong in
which the aid of Wakonda is invoked and if successful ob-
tained. Robbery or theft is also an individual offense though not
by them considered as such to Wakoiida. An Indian gives
for his reason for stealing an article that his necessities required it
and he could not get it any other way. He will not steal an article
he does not want or can not use and run useless risk of detection,
but a horse, gun, knife, or other things will sometimes be taken and
the act excused on the plea of his necessities.
482 TRIBES or THE UPPER MISSOTJEI [eth.ann.46
The risk attending the extraction of large articles or the disgrace
incurred by pilfering is, they grant, all the punishment necessary,
and these seldom are attended with any serious consequences. All
must live some way and the right to property not being well defined —
besides each being accustomed to frequent revei-ses — stealing is looked
upon more as a means of subsistence necessitated by the state of
their peculiar wants, and does not present the idea of theft to them
as an immoral act or one tending to aggravate Wakoiida.
Robberies to the extent of depriving another of his means of living
are seldom if ever attempted, though retaliation would of course be
severe in proportion, and in the progress of this retaliation the
property thus acquired, be it horses or women, would be destroyed,
besides the risk attending the robber personally.
Fornication and adultery are not considered offenses to Wa-
koiida. If the consent of the woman has been obtained, punishment
is seklom inflicted on the man unless caught in the act. The woman,
liowever, is punished in various ways, sometimes, though not usually,
by death. The property of the offender is taken or destroyed for
his trespass on the property of the offended. The chastity of any
woman not the property of another man may be violated without
any moral sense of wrong presenting itself, though the seducer would
be liable to be made to pay or in default of doing so his horses
would be killed by the relatives of the woman. Moreover, they
look upon women as intended for this purpose, and only take into
consideration the different claims upon them as an article of property.
Rapes on virgins are nearly unknown. Were such a crime accom-
plished the law would be death to the perpetrator, not because it is
morally wrong, but because it depreciates the price of the woman
and lessens her chance of marriage. It is also considered as an insult
to her relatives, intimating a contempt of their feelings and power
of protection.
The evils arising from falsehood or lying are with them of small
importance. Any lies an Indian could invent would not be produc-
tive of any great evil, and owing to their associations the falsehood
would soon appear. This being the case it is not regarded as a great
offense even to the individual, much less Wakonda. They all
lie occasionally, and the custom is so common as scarcely to attract
any further notice than their ridicule. Therefore there is no punish-
ment attending on it further than the person famed for lying would
be neglected and despised by the others. To call an Indian a liar
would be insult certainly, but not in the same degree as the same
epithet among whites. It would not be aggravation enough alone
to merit a blow or any revenge. There is no such thing as profane
swearing among any of these prairie tribes, nor is there a word in
DENio] THE ASSINIBOIN 483
their language equivalent to even the smallest profane oaths in such
general use among whites. The name of Wakoiida is never
mentioned without manifestations of awe and reverence. In this
respect at least they are far superior to their Christian brethren.
In conclusion of this answer we come again to the starting point.
What in their estimation is crime, is wrong, is an offense to
Wakohda ? Crime and wrong can be nothing more than offenses
to persons subject to their law of retaliation, the punishment being
greater or less according to the object which entails it. Although
they do not believe in future punishments, yet they think that
Wakonda can be offended and does punish in this life; not for
crimes, as they have no existence, but for neglect of proper fasts,
sacrifices, and personal privations and inflictions necessary to pro-
pitiate his anger. They believe that they are under obligations to
worship Wakoiida. not from the fact of their creation or even
as to the author of all good, but through fear of his power. In al-
most every emergency an Indian can be placed, the cause of which
is not visible or the result doubtfid, that is, where his own powers
fail, he applies to Wakoiida. These applications are made by
presenting to the Sun, Thunder, and other supernatural agencies
offerings of considerable value, by fasting, by lacerating their bodies,
prayers, and incantations, with the view of avoiding sickness in
their families, personal harm of every description, attacks of
enemies, to obtain success in war, to collect the buffalo near their
camp, to avoid the attacks of bears, strokes of lightning, or even the
appearance of ghosts. Where success has not followed these rites
and ceremonies they believe it is caused by the offerings not being
of sufficient value, or not of long duration, or their having lieen too
setldom performed. Therefore the neglect or incompetency of these
sacrifices constitutes the crime and the punishment is visible in the
misfortune that occurs. This part of the subject will meet with
further consideration under the head of religion.
Praters
PBA-i-ER OF A Warrior." — " O Wakoiida. you see me a poor man ;
have pity upon me. I go to war to revenge the death of my brother;
have pity upon me. I smoke this tobacco taken from my medicine
sack, where it has been enveloped with the remains of my dead
brother.^'^ I smoke it to my Tutelary, to you ; aid me in revenge. On
my path preserve me from mad wolves. Let no enemies surprise
me. I have sacrificed, I have smoked, my heart is low, have pity
" Almost every sentence is repeated over three or four times in a low running tone,
with the pipe presented to the Charm, Amulet, or Sun.
" Meaning with a locli of his hair.
484 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ANN. 46
upon me. Give me the bow.s and arrows of my enemies. Give me
their guns. Give me their horses. Give me their bodias. Let me
have my face blackened on my return. Let good weather come that
I can see. Good dreams give that I can judge where they are. I
have suffered. I wish to live. I wish to be revenged. I am poor. I
want horses. I will sacrifice. I will smoke. I will remember ; have
pity upon me."
Prater to Ghosts. — ^"Spirits of our dead relatives, I make this
feast for you to call you all around me. I smoke this tobacco which
has been inclosed with your hair; be near us and hear. My friends
are around me, and you are called to the feast. Call on all the
spirits of our dead friends to aid in giving us what we ask. Make
the buffalo come near and the clouds and wind fair to approach
them, that we may always have meat in camp to feed us and you.
Help us in every way ; let our children live. Let us live. Call on all
these spirits and ask them to assist you in helping us.
" If we hunt, be with us. If we go to war, be with us. Enable
us to revenge some of your deaths upon our enemies. They have
killed you ; they have brought our hearts low. Bring their hearts low
also. Let us blacken our faces. Keep us from harm, rest quiet, we
will not cease to cry for and remember you. You are remembered
in this feast, eat some of it [here small bits are scattered around].
This to you, my father. This for you, my grandfather, my uncle,
my brother, the relations of all present eat, rest in quiet, do not let
disease trouble us. We eat for you, we cry for you, we cut ourselves
for you."
In conclusion, if the spirit addressed be recently dead they will
all cry, and some of the immediate relatives cut their legs and arms,
but if it is a feast to the memory of those long since dead some of
the concluding words are left out. There is a good deal of repetition
and often a long prayer is said, but the above is in amount what they
ask. For the previous ceremony before the jjrayer is said, see the
article where feasts to the dead are described.
The Moon
They say the moon is a hot body and derives its light from its own
nature, not as a reflection of the sun's rays ; that it is eaten up monthly
or during a given period by a great number of moles, which they call
we-as-poo-gah (moon nibblers). These moles are numerous all over
the prairies, have pointed noses, no teeth, and burrow in the ground.
They (the Indians) believe that in eating up the moon their noses
are burned off, their teeth worn out, and for their damage have been
cast down from above, where they are doomed to burrow in the
earth and get nothing to eat. The same operation is going on all
DENIQ] THE ASSINIBOIN 485
the time by other moles, who in their turn will be thrown down.
They think Wakohda causes a new moon to grow when the
old one has been destroyed. The moon is not supposed to be an
abiding place for beings, but is worshipped and sacrificed to on
account of its affording light by which to travel at night. They take
the dark part of the face of the moon to be a large light Man holding
a kettle in each hand. Stars are other bodies of fire far off, which
they admit may be the residences of spirits or beings, though no great
stress is laid on the idea. They are not regarded as parts of a system.
Except the Polar Star and the Ursa Major, but few of the planets, if
any, are known.
Parental Affection
Tlie Indians show great veneration for their parents and affection
among brothers and sisters; more, perhaps, to their parents than
the others; but this only continues as long as they are vigorous
enough to hunt, travel, and follow the camp. When old age and
helplessness come on they are neglected. In proportion as age ad-
vances, veneration diminishes, and when parents become a burden
they are left in some encampment with a small supply of provisions,
which being exhausted, they perish. Age is under no circumstances
the object of veneration ; the fate of very old brothers and sisters is
the same. They excuse themselves from this unnatural act by saying
they are unable to transport them and that they are of no more use ;
also that it is the request of the old persons. This may be true, and
it is likely that the life they lead in camp or in traveling, exjjosed
to all weather and hardship, renders death desirable. There are
very few very old Indians. They are not a long-lived people, and
this is the reason these acts are not of more frequent occurrence. We
do not know that the striking of a parent would be deemed a crime ;
at least no punishment would follow from others, but it is not cus-
tomary and would be considered disgraceful. Eight years since this
period we were jDresent when an Indian shot his father dead for
striking his mother, but this is the only instance of the kind we ever
saw or heard of, and the person is despised by all, besides being
since that afflicted by an incurable disease resembling scrofula. Indian
priests, doctors, or conjurors are not more venerated on account of
their supposed supernatural powers, but are somewhat feared, and
sometimes persecuted or killed for supposed inflictions of diseases
by sorcery. This fear is general but secret, and these men are neither
venerated nor associated with as much as ordinary persons. If
their services be required they are paid, and afterwards let alone, at
least not trifled with nor loved. We can not by close inquiry find
that any of these Indians ever killed by stoning a person, though
enemies are tortured in almost every other way, if taken alive.
486 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [bth. ann. 46
Religion
All these Indians believe in a Great Power, the First Cause of Crea-
tion, though they do not attempt to embody this idea, and call it by
name Wah-con-tun'-ga or Great Medicine/'' The word " medicine "
in this case has no reference to the use of drugs, but the sense of it is
all that is incomprehensible, supernatural, all-powerful, etc. Every-
thing that can not be explained, accounted for by ordinary means, or
all that is above the comprehension and power of man (Indians) is
called Wah-con or medicine. Thus their own priests or jugglers
are named Wah-con. A steamboat, clock, machine, or even toys, of
the movements of which or the principle of motion they could not
account for, would likewise be termed Wah-con. Now, Wa-
cofida refers to something greater than is within the power of
man to accomplish, and its effects are manifested in the elements,
natural phenomena, sickness, death, great distress, or loss from ene-
mies, famine, lightning, and any other thing to them unaccountable
by any visible means. They think Wakonda pervades all air,
earth, and sky; that it is in fact omnipresent and omnipotent,
though subject to be changed and enlisted on their part in any under-
taking if the proper ceremonies, sacrifices, and fasts are resorted to.
They consider its power to be made applicable to either good or evil
according to their observance of these ceremonies. They admit the
existence of its good in years of great abundance of game, seasons
of general health, triumphs over enemies, etc. ; and its evil or danger
is felt in every loss, infectious disease, or distress, the cause of which
they are ignorant. These are the attributes of Wakoiida, and his
residence is supposed by some to be in the sun, but his power
everywhere.
They do not acknowledge any separate existing evil spirit or
influence, though they have a name for this in their language, but
the idea has been implanted by whites in later years, and can not
by them be realized. All unaccountable evil is a dispensation of
the anger of Wakoiida, which it is in their power to avoid by the
proper fasts, sacrifices, etc., and which they all do.
Now this Supernatural Unknown Cause or Mystery created all
things in the beginning. After the earth a few men and women of
different colors were made, from whom descended all people. Dif-
ferent races were created for different pursuits. They say that to
the whites was allotted education, knowledge of the mechanical arts,
of machinery, etc., and therefore the whites in many things are
" Denig here defines the sense in which he uses the term " medicine " as applied to tlie
objects and things to which the native Indians apply their words, v^akon and wakoniUi,
meaning, " spiritual, sacred, consecrated, wonderful, incomprehensible, divine ; a spirit,
a diviner etc."
DiSNiG] THE ASSINIBOIN 487
Wah-con. They were also made rich and clothed, or have the means
of getting clothing, and everything they want without hardship or
exposure. The Indians, they say, were made naked and with such
qualifications as to suit a hunter, knowledge enough to make his arms
and use them at war or in the chase, a constitution to stand severe
cold, long fasting, excessive fatigue, and watchfulness, and this was
their portion. The position and pursuits of people were not defined
by any laws, oral or otherwise delivered, but each witii the powers
granted him was enabled to live. The hunter soon found out that
he could make traps and weapons, and felt his superiority over the
animal creation.
They believe all animals are made for the use of man and more
especially for the Indians, their meat being for food and their skin
for clothing, " for " say they, " if not for that use for what other
purpose ? " Indians must have meat, and they eat all animals and
birds, even to the crow and rattlesnake.'^ The prairie (the earth)
was made for grazing the buffalo, and rivers to produce fuel, etc.
The whites from their superior knowledge soon found out their
destiny — ^to make everything, subdue evei-ything, and make even
the Indians work for their benefit. People were left in this state
and each pursued their different occupations.
We can not trace in any of their conversations or religion any
appearance of a moral code nor any offenses they can be guilty of
toward Wakohda except the omission of worship. If they had an
idea of the kind they would undoubtedly do penance and offer
sacrifices for these acts, but this is not the case. There is no
repentance for past deeds; all ceremonies and worship is to avoid
present or future evil. What we term crime can not be an offense
to Wakoiida, as its aid is invoked to commit the greatest of them.
Their idea of AVakohda or Great Unknown Power is, we believe,
nothing more than the fear of evil befalling them, the averting
of which is beyond the power of man. Therefore they make sacri-
fices, fasts, prayers, etc., to this Unknown Power which they know
from actual phenomena has an existence, and think His aid can
thus be secured.
But they can go no further. They have no idea of a Being whose
attributes are mercy, forgiveness, benevolence, truth, justice, etc.,
nor will they have until these words have a signification and appre-
ciation among themselves. This view is the correct and general one
among all the prairie tribes, though it is often clothed in supersti-
tious narrative of fable not necessary to be inserted here. War and
peace would not be recognized as His special acts, as they know these
"The Assiniboin never eat the rattlesnake, but it is linown that some of the St.
Peter's Sioux and Cree do.
488 TKIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ann. 46
things depend upon themselves, but success or defeat would be, as
that is beyond their power or knowledge when they start to war.
Consequently, a successful warrior or leader is always said to be
Wah-con or divine — that is, one who has by some means secured
the aid of Wakoiida. Natural phenomena unattended by either
good or evil results would pass by unnoticed, but destructive tor-
nadoes, deaths by lightning, by diseases such as apoplexy or un-
accountable accidents would be regarded as His special acts. Eclipses,
thunder, and lightning are warnings, and to these sacrifices are made
with the view of averting the danger intimated, yet unknown. From
this dread of unaccountable evil arises their repugnance to talk on
the subject. To do so would lay open their secrets of apprehensions,
of sacrifices, and might, they think, by levity produce the evil they
wish to avoid or a counterpoise of sacrifice on the part of some one
else render theirs unavailing.
For the further explanation of this subject it will be proper to state
some of their sacrifices and ceremonies so that a minute survey of
the operations of their minds can be realized. The gi'eatest public
or national ceremony of the Assiniboin is the Sacred Lodge. The
time for this is appointed by some divining man of known repute
and' invitations are sent to the different camps to attend. Lodges
are placed in the form of a long tent by posts planted a few yards
apart and others transversely, over which are stretched many lodge
skins to form one building about 100 yards long and 5 or 6 yards
■wide. To these transverse poles are tied all offerings to Wakoiida,
tliough principally to the Sun and Thunder. These offerings
consist of skins of value, different kinds of cloth, beads, kettles,
and any new articles the donator can afford and is willing to sacri-
fice, in iiroportionate value as their wishes to effect some object or
to avoid some danger they apprehend exists. A mast about 40 feet
high is raised in front of the building and the raising of this re-
quires the presence of all the men and women, who all the time sing
a kind of hymn or tune, though no words are used in it. This.
mast is painted and decked out very gaily. All are dressed in their
very best raiment and the whole presents a lively and interesting
appearance. The divining man who called the meeting on the first
day goes througli many prayers and ceremonies with the pipe, the
tenor of which are invocations for general health and success both
in war and the chase, and for the avoiding of any and all unknown
evil or accidents.
The second day is devoted to dancing and feasting on the very best
they can produce, and this is the only dance among them except the
scalp dance where men and women dance together. On the third
day is exhibited feats of sleight of hand and tricks, some of which
dekig]
THE ASSINIBOIN 489
are very well done and serve to increase their belief in the super-
natural powers of the divining men wlio perform them. On the
fourth day these sacrifices are taken down, destroyed in such manner
as to be of no use to anyone who finds them, and hung on different
trees or bushes in the neighborhood. The divining man who called
the meeting receives presents from a good many who attend, of
horses and other property, and it generally proves a good speculation
on his part. This is done but once a year and is their only form of
national worship.
The common way in which sacrifices are made by individuals is
thus: The Indian takes some article of value alone into the hills
or woods, lights the pipe, and invokes the aid of Wakohda in
whatever he desires to succeed, promising a repetition on a certain
time."* This article is then damaged or destroyed and left there.
After this he returns to his lodge, kills a dog, makes a feast, and
invites his neighbors, by whom the flesh is eaten and small portions
thrown on the ground as a respect to Wakohda. It does not
appear, however, that the killing and eating of the animal is con-
sidered as part of the sacrifice fui-ther than to add to the importance
of the ceremony.
A feast of corn, flour, or berries is as often used on these occasions
as animal flesh. The article sacrificed inust be something of value,
must have caused the Indian some trouble or expense to procure;
otherwise it is of no avail. On one occasion an Indian bought at this
place the following three articles at the price of six buffalo robes,
viz, two kettle covers, a ball that had been shot out of a gun, and
a chew of tobacco that had been thrown away. Now, although he
could have procured anj' of these articles for nothing in his own
camp, yet according to his promise to Wakohda he was obliged to
pay a high price and to travel a long distance to procure them.
Every warrior or man of family among them makes these sacrifices
Avhenever he feels disposed, or their promises to Wakohda become
due, and if they do not fulfill these promises or neglect these
ceremonies they are punished, or at least any accident, loss, or failure
would be attributed to this cause, that could not be accounted for
by any other. Another mode resorted to of propitiating the anger
of Wakohda or securing his aid is fasting and cutting their
bodies. This is not much practiced by tlie Assiniboin except for
success in war.
Several principal warriors will lie out in the cold, rain, or snow
for three or four days and nights, without eating, drinking,
smoking, or speaking, making internal prayers to Wakonda to aid
"This fetish or amulet is also exposed and smolied to as a medium for Us prayer to
^each the Great Medicine.
88253°— 30 32
490 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ann. 40
them in accomplishing their objects and the dreams that present
themselves under these circumstances are received as favorable or
unfavorable omens according to the nature of the visions presented.
This is done by those who are desirous of leading a war party or
becoming capable to lead by some great exploit, and the leader chosen
is he whose' dream appears to present the greatest appearance of suc-
cess. These fasts are sometimes accompanied by cutting the breast
with a knife horizontally or the arms transversely above the elbow,
making incisions about 3 or 4 inches long and half an inch deep,
which are not bound up. Among the Mandan and Gros Ventres
these ceremonies are still more severe. Incisions are made on each
side of the shoulder blade on the back and a stout stick is thrust
through. A cord is then attached to the stick and they are drawn up
off their feet to a jjost planted for the purpose. By an impetus given
with their feet they throw themselves out from the post and swing
themselves around violently until the cord winds and unwinds suc-
cessively, for one or two days, when the hold breaks and they fall
to the ground.
If not ali'eady too much weakened, new incisions are made and
cords 10 or 12 feet long are tied therein. To the ends of these cords
are attached three or four buffalo bulls' heads and horns, each
weighing from 15 to 20 pounds, and they drag this weight over
the ground, the horns plowing it up until the holds break, or faint-
ing from exhaustion they are carried away by their relatives. Noth-
ing is eaten or drunk during all this time.'^
These and other ceremonies are what they think appeases the
anger, averts the evil, or secures the aid of Wakonda or Great
Mystery. They are not made with the view of any atonement
whatever for bad deeds, neither with the object of purifying
their minds for communion with him or it, but as a payment. The
idea is that he who undergoes so much voluntary ^junishment or pain,
or destroys so much property to him valuable, entitles him to the
protection of that unknown power and that it can and will favor
those who thus remember and worship him.
They have no idea of national and individual atonement, nor
that any person was to or has come on earth to answer for them.
To make this idea reasonable to them they would first have to be
taught that they are guilty of crime and a correct knowledge of
the attributes of the Great Mystery, together with a moral sense of
justice. To do this the entire regeneration of the grown Indian must
be brought about, which it would be little less than a miracle to
accomplish. ,
'" We perceive by the printed inquiry that this is not credited, yet it ig so common
among these people as scarcely to attract the attention of the traders.
DENIG] THE ASSIJTIBOrN' 491
They would, to please any missionary, give a tacit consent to his
creed, whatever it was. Knowing him to be an educated and superior
man, not striving after personal gain, they would be induced to give
it a trial, but would continue their own ceremonies at the same time
in secret, and any failure of their expectations would be blamed on
the missionary. They might actually appear to him converted by
outward show, but their minds would undergo no change, unless it
was to become more confused and skeptical. This is the reason why
all attemjits at reformation should be made with their children.
Abstract truth will not admit of general application, without taking
into consideration the existing state of things. The necessity of law
must be felt before it would avail; their ignorance made manifest
before truth could be introduced ; a moral sense of justice and of their
depravity implanted before moral i-ectitude can be expected.
Horses sacrificed on an Indian's grave are an offering to the Great
Mystery to conduct the soul of the departed immediately to the
south, where the Indian Paradise is said to be situated, and also in-
cludes a desire that the Great Mystery should supply the place of
the deceased parent, as a father and protector. Dogs and other
animals that are killed in sacrifice, are eaten by those invited, and
only appear to be part of the ceremony, not of the sacrifice. The
entrails of the animal thus killed are neither eaten nor burned,
but thrown away as on any other occasion.
In eating these feasts small bits are thrown on the ground with
these words : '• This to Wakofida to keep us from harm," " This
to the Sun," " This to the Thunder,"' or to some of their dead
relatives, and these ejaculations are uttered in a very low voice,
not always audible. They offer no human sacrifices to Wakoiida,
neither do their traditions mention their forefathers to have done so.
Though enemies are tortured to death in many ways, yet it is only
to satisfy their revenge and thirst for savage glory. Within the last
year several of these acts have been committed a short distance from
this place, which to convey an idea of we may mention here. Five
Blackfeet wei-e caught stealing horses from the Crow village in the
spring of 1853, then at the mouth of the Yellowstone River, and
the enemies were pursued a mile or so, when they took refuge in a
cluster of bushes. The Crows surrounded them and by constant
firing killed all except one, who was shot through the leg. This man
they took out alive, scalped, and cut his hands off, gathered their
boys around who fired into his body with powder, striking him in
the face with his own scalp, and Imocking on his head with stones
and tomahawks until he died. Afterwards the five bodies were
carried to camp, the heads, hands, feet, and privates cut off, paraded
on poles, and thrown around the camp, some of which found their
492 TRIBES or THE UPPEE MISSOURI [eth. ann. 46
way to the fort, and were presented by tlie Crows to the Cree
Indians then here.
A few weeks before the period at which we write some Blackfeet
stole horses from the Cree camp, were pursued and 11 out of the 12
of which the party consisted were killed. The remaining one was
taken alive, scalped, his right hand cut off, and thus started back to
his own nation to tell the news. Now as this man was leaving the
Cree camp he met a Cree -" boy whom he managed to kill with his
remaining hand, was pursued and taken the second time, and was
tortured to death by slow mutilation.
The trunks are generally burned, but all the members and the head
are carried about the camp, if near, and insulted by the old women
and boys in every possible manner. The Sioux, Assiniboin, and
Cree will on occasions tear out the heart of an enemy, place it on a
stick and roast it before the fire, dance around, sing, and each bite off
and swallow a small piece. There are no religious associations at-
tending these acts, and they are not made with the view of appeasing
the anger or of sacrifices to the Great Mystery; neither do their
words and actions on these occasions imply any such idea ; all is in-
sult to the dead enemy, and savage glory and revenge to themselves.
The moral character of their priests or doctors does not differ
in any respect from that of ordinary Indians, which have by this
time been seen to possess no such qualities as sobriety, truth, etc.
Whether they actually believe in their own powers we can not say,
but rather think they do. Perhaps some strokes of fortune or re-
markable coincidences have produced this belief, or they may think
that the pains and exertions they use may induce the Wakoiida
to aid them. We have already noticed this class of priests in their
medical capacity, and will now state their other qualifications. They
wear no badge of office, are either of the male or female sex, are not
hereditary, nor is their number limited. As many as are believed
to be Wa-con, or Divine, and are willing to run the risk attending
the profession, do so. They are all called by the same general name
of Wa-con, independent of their individual or real name. They
affect to cure diseases, reveal future events, direct where lost articles
are to be found, interpret dreams, etc. The ceremony attending
any of these things (except sickness) is conducted by the medicine
man, first being paid for his services. Afterwards he enters a small
lodge built for the purpose, like the vapor bath and drums,
rattles and sings alone the greater part of the night, returning his
answer to those concerned in the morning. These answers partake
of the nature of those of the ancient oracles, are ambiguous, with
the view of evading decided failure. They do not claim the power
»> Evidently should he Blackfeet.
DENIG] THE ASSHSriBOIIT 493
of witchcraft, as this is a dangerous profession, but this power is
ascribed to them by the other Indians.
The majority of these peojile believe, or say they believe, that
some of these old conjurors can '' shoot them with bad spells "
(as they express it) at the distance of 100 miles off, and it is on the
assumption that they are the cause of some of their deaths, that the
lives of these professors are sometimes forfeited. We believe their
confidence in the powers of these priests and medicine men is pretty
general, though some of them (the priests) are more divine or
Wa-con than others. When an Indian is sick they endeavor to cure
him, as has been stated, and if unsuccessful and death ensues they
usually keep out of sight until the first bursts of grief are over.
Others of the same profession who have not been called to administer
to the patient attend the funeral, their object being to secure what-
ever i^roperty they can by loud crying, cutting their hair and bodies,
and other display of profound grief. Nothing resembling a prayer
is said over the dead at the burial nor anything spoken. Indeed,
on account of their loud lamentations it would be impossible to hear
it if it were. Some weeks afterwards, however, other ceremonies
take place regarding the dead which will be described in another
place. The body is placed in the fork of a tree, on a scaffold, or
occasionally interred on the top of a high hill. No device, inscrip-
tion, or hieroglj'phics are made at or near the place of interment
by any of these nations.
As far as we have proceeded with their religion, belief is the gen-
eral one, though it maj' be clothed in different language by different
Indians, sometimes superstitious and fabulous, but our object has
been to arrive at the philosophy of their religion by rejecting fables,
etc., which do not bear upon the inquiry.
From this point all other religion diverges into different minor
beliefs and superstitions according to the fancy of each individual.
Many believe in certain evil spells and troubles brought on them by
lesser spirits or ghosts and even of the spirits of monsters which have
no existence nor ever had except in their dreams and morbid imagi-
nation. It appears that these ghosts are the cause of all petty
malice, vexations, or bad luck, not being of sufficient consequence to
attract the attention or induce the influence of Wakoiida. To relate
the different kinds of belief in these powers as each would explain it
would require the labor of years, and it is somewhat difficult to gener-
alize, owing to the prevailing differences. Under some of the answers
that will follow regarding charms, amulets, ghosts, etc.. will be de-
tailed enough in conjunction with what has already been stated to
form a tolerably connected idea of this feature of their faith.
Sorcery or witchcraft has already been noticed, but we may in
addition state that the witchcraft imputed to some of their doctors
494 TBIBES OF THE LTPPER MISSOURI [eth. ann. 46
is their power to do evil at a great distance from the object, to pro-
duce death or disease, though they do not believe these persons can
transform themselves into other shapes; think they can exercise the
same power to do good if they choose, and do exercise it in curing
the sick. It is in consequence of this belief that the doctor or divin-
ing man is punished in case of failure and death, as they think it is
his unwillingness, not his inability, to cure which produces the
result. They do not burn them, but the writer has seen several shot
at different times by the relatives of the deceased, on the supposition
they caused their death. This custom is in as great force now as it
ever was.
The divining man has a chance to become rich in horses and other
property in a short time, as his fees depend on himself; but these
advantages are more than counterbalanced by the risk attending the
profession. The doctor, priest, conjuror, wizard, prophet, and divin-
ing man are all united in the same person ; that is, to a divining man
(Wa-con), or divining woman (Wa-can), these powers, or some
of them, are ascribed, and they are believed to possess them in pro-
portion as their success has been developed. Some are simply doctors
of medicine, others in addition are conjurors and do tricks. Some
go further, interpret dreams, reveal the futui-e, find lost articles, etc.
The whole united forms the entire divining man. The persons who
profess and perform some of these things are tolerably numerous;
but the effective diviner of established reputation, large prac-
tice, and possessing the whole of the foregoing powers are very
few, perhaps not more than six or eight in the whole Assiniboin
Nation. As has been observed, the}' form no distinct body and
have but little influence in council unless they can add that of warrior
to their many distinguished titles and degrees.
The whole of these Indians most sincerely believe in the theory
of ghosts, that departed spirits have the power to make themselves
visible and heard, that they can assume any shape they wish, of
animals or men, and many will affirm that they have actually seen
these apparitions and heard their whistlings and moanings. They
are much afraid of these appearances, and under no consideration
will go alone near a burial place after dark. They believe these
apparitions have the power of striking the beholder with some
disease, and many complaints are attributed to this cause. They
thei'efore make feasts and prayers to them to remain quiet. Smaller
evils and misfortunes are caused by their power, and a great many
stories are nightly recounted in their lodges of the different shapes
in which they ajjpear.
Dreams are revelations of Great Mystery and have consider-
able influence over them, either in war expeditions or the chase.
DENIG]
THE ASSINIBOIN 495
A bad dream on the part of the leader of a war party would be
sufficient cause for their return, even if they were within a short dis-
tance of their enemies. It would also prevent an Indian from his
customary hunting and have other effects of the like nature for a
short time. Good dreams are therefore always desired and courted,
particularly on the eve of war excursions. Faith in amulets and
charms is general among the whole of these tribes. The material of
these charms is of every possible variety, as also the different de-
grees of influence they exercise over different minds. The idea
though thoroughly realized by ourselves is difficult to explain, but
may be thus stated: Although the Great Spirit is all powerful, yet
His will is uncertain; He is invisible and only manifests His power
in extraordinary circumstances. The want of a tangible medium
is felt, therefore, through which they can offer their prayers to all
ghosts, lesser influences of evil, which overrule their ordinary occu-
pations. Each Indian selects some object for this purpose and calls
it his medicine, which is invested with a sacred character by the care
with which it is guarded and the prayers, invocations, etc., made
through it as a medium.
This charm or fetish is chosen in consequence of some dream or
incident or idea presented on some important occasion, and consists
of the skin of a weasel, otter, or beaver ; heads and bodies of different
kinds of birds, stuffed; images of wood, stone, and beads wrought
upon skin ; drawings of bulls, bears, wolves, owls, serpents, monsters,
who have never existed; even a bullet worn round the neck; in fact
anything resembling animate, inanimate, or imaginative creation,
is selected according to the superstitious fancy of the individual.
This charm, whatever it is, is inclosed in several envelopes of skin,
and placed in a rawhide sack which is painted and fringed in various
ways. This sack is never opened in the presence of anyone unless the
Indian falls sick, when he has it taken out and placed at his head.
Ordinarily this object is taken out in secret, and prayers and invoca-
tions made through it as a medium to the spirits he wishes to propi-
tiate. They are aware that the object has no intrinsic power, but its
virtue lies in their faith of their ceremonies, as exhibited through
this charm as a visible medium to the supernatural. It is in fact the
same operation of mind (though differently exhibited) as is displayed
in the charms believed in by most of the lower order of whites.
Although many ignorant white persons have faith in the charms,
spells, etc., of quack doctors and old women, yet this does not de-
stroy their belief in the Supreme Being, neither does it that of the
Indian. As long as he has success in his different ordinary under-
takings and is not troubled with the evils he fears, he will con-
tinue to say his medicine is good, but should he be disappointed
496 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [ETH. ANN. 46
and the case reversed, lie will throw the charm away and substitute
some other.
Thus the writing, paintings, and pictures done by whites are con-
sidered great charms by some Indians, particularly the Crows, and
are eagerly sought after as such. In the same light is regarded the
medal of the crucifixion given them by Catholic priests.
What is the actual character of their worship when closely an-
alyzed ?
It is hoped that the preceding remarks have rendered this character
plain. All their prayers, sacrifices, feasts and personal inflictions
tend only to advance their temporal welfare and interest.
Several tunes are sung on some of these occasions when presenting
the pipe to the Sun, etc., that are of a sacred character, partaking of
the nature of thanksgiving for any signal success in war or otherwise.
A few words are used, but the chant is solemnly performed without
their usual gesticulations or levity.
The custom of holding as sacred the cult of the tobacco plant is
general. No ceremony of importance takes place among them in
which the pipe is not used. There are, however, several solemn
occasions in which the manufactured tobacco will not answer, when
they use that grown by themselves. These customs occur among the
Mandan, Gros Ventres, Arikara, and Crows, the only nations who
cultivate the tobacco plant. vSacrifices of small quantities of tobacco
are also made on many occasions, and always a small piece is found
wrapped with the medicine pipe or inclosed in the medicine sack.
Why it is considered sacred they can not explain, and the idea
appears one of the most ancient and original among them.
These tribes do not worship fire in any form. The Sun is thought
to be a body of fire and is worshipped next to the Great Mystery by
all of them, not, however, because it is fire (though being luminous
HO doubt originated the idea) but because it is believed by most of
them to be the residence, and by some the eye, of the Great Mystery.
It is worshipped as the greatest visible symbol of the Great Mystery.
No other ceremonies are in existence among them by which we would
judge that fire is regarded with more reverence than water. On some
occasions councils are opened witli fire struck from flint, such as
peace-making between two nations, ceremonies in the medicine lodge,
and feasts to the dead, but in all ordinary councils among themselves
this distinction is not made. In the cases where it is obtained from
the flint it seems to be merely an adherence to ancient custom. No
extra benefits are expected on that account, neither when questioned
do they attach much importance to the fact. Fire would be nothing
without the tobacco. In all these ceremonies with which we are well
acquainted, we can safely say that the tobacco is the sacred material
DENIQ] THE ASSINIBOIN- 497
(not the fire). The rest depends on their invocations, etc., to the
Great Mystery or his symbols to render the whole of an effective
character in their estimation. We can not by inquiry find that there
has ever been among them or tlieir ancestors an idea of a holy or
eternal fire.
Omens have great influence on them on all occasions and are of
every possible variety. Storms, severe thunder, croaking of ravens,
and unusual sounds in the night, or even the fall of their medicine
sack or medicine pipe, would be sufficient to turn back a war party
if any of these omens were considered by their leaders as unfortunate
in their predictions, which they generally do. Councils would not
proceed during severe thunder, an eclipse, or any unusual phenomena,
thougli smaller omens would not be regarded. The flight of birds
is seldom if ever considered ominous unless their passage be accom-
panied with some unusual ajspearances. Howlings of wolves and
foxes in a peculiar manner, whistling and moanings of ghosts, and
bad or bloody dreams woukl prevent the individual from war or
the chase for a short time.
From all that has been written concerning their religion we would
rather others would decide whether the Indians are in reality
idolaters. That they render a species of worship to idols of almost
every description is true, yet this worship only refers through these
toys or charms to the great source of all power, or to supernatural
interference. They do not believe in the virtue of the material of
which they are made, nor do the_y ascribe to them an immaterial
spirit, but the mind bj' viewing them has a resting point, a something
to address in form, not for great protection and aid, but for daily
favors, and averting of smaller evils.
Uneducated as they are, obliged mentally to grasp at protection
from supernatural evil, in every way, from the great luminary the
sun, as the most powerful, to the smallest atom that may possibly
be of some aid, they, through these images or objects, endeavor to
excite the interest of the Great Mystery, an Unknown Power, to
whose apjaroach no one certain way presents itself. If this be
idolatry, be it so.
What else could be expected ? That the Indians should be in ad-
vance of Christians, who have their charms, their chance, their
fortune, and other ideas fully as repugnant to the belief in an all-wise
disposer of events, as the customs of the Indians present ? The very
fact of the general practice of this species of idolatry appears to
us to be the greatest evidence of their being true worshipers. It
is in fact acknowledging a supernatural agency in everything; a
belief in a riding providence over this life in every situation. If
their minds pursue wrong directions, and their prayers are for tern-
498 TlilBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ann. 46
poral, not spiritual welfare, it is not their fault. Why should they
desire what they do not want? If no moral sense of right and wrong
is found among them, no sins acknowledged, nor future punishments
feai'ed, it must follow that temporal welfare and personal advantage
are all that remains worth praying or fasting for. If they pray
and sacrifice to the sun and thunder it is nothing more than acknowl-
edging the existence and power of God in these. His works.
If they depend on fetishes and amulets to aid them in ordinary
life it is what many Christians do in a different way, yet these are
not accused of idolatry. If the right ideas were instilled into the
mind of the Indian he would be no more the savage, but the Chris-
tian, and would worship the same being in a. different sense and
form than he now does in any way his distorted imagination thinks
may prove effective. Great evil or great good is evaded or invoked
from the Great Spirit through great ajiparent mediums, as the Sun
and Thunder.
Smaller evils and smaller benefits are averted or sought through
the medium of charms which though not intrinsically of any virtue,
yet benefits are the consequences attending on their prayers through
them, their character being rendered sacred by constant care, and
the importance of their jjosition as mediums of worship. The
identity of the Great Spirit as a being appears to be lost in their
worship of the portions of creation capable of inspiring them with
fear. His existence as a cause is admitted, but we do not observe
He is often addressed except through some visible medium, which is
as it were a separation of his power among these objects or animals.
The medicine sack contains the fetish or charm referred to, which
with a lock of some dead relative's hair and a small piece of tobacco
is inclosed in several envelopes of skins of different kinds, on which
pictures of imaginary or real animals are rudely drawn.
This sack is made of raw buffalo hide (dried), the hair scraped
off and painted and fringed in various ways. It is well
tied up, not pried into by anyone, and mostly suspended to a pole
outside the lodge in camp or carried on the back of some woman
when traveling. When the owner dies it is buried with him. This
is the arcanum of the medicine sack, and it possesses none of the
features of an ark, either inside or out.
Immortality
That the soul lives after death is the general assent, and that this
is a final state, but by pursuing the inquiry we do not arrive at any
certain idea of their occupation there, as they will always say they
do not know. This much, however, some acknowledged, that when
they die their soul is taken to the south to a warm country, though
DBNIQ] THE ASSINIBOIlSr 499
this place does not appear to be either on the earth or in the heavens.
Here is a state of pleasure and happiness, free from all disease,
trouble, want, war, or accident. Some are more comfortably situated
than others, particularly those who have been great warriors and
those who have been attentive to their sacrifices and other cere-
monies. No jDunishment for offenses is apprehended, though re-
wards are granted. If still questioned they will describe a counter-
part or nearly so of the Mohammedan paradise, or a shadowy image
of this life, abstracting the evil. There is no resurrection of the
body, though they are presumed to have other bodies furnished them
in the future state, that present the same features as in this life, yet
are not subject to its vicissitudes.
Animals of all kinds are found there, though it does not appear
that they are the souls of those which lived in this world. Reason-
ing powers and immortality are not ascribed to the brute creation.
Everything referring to a futui'e state is not made the subjecst
of their conversations, and each man's opinions differ. Some deny
any such a state and think death final to soul and body. Others
that the soul never leaves the neighborhood of its burial place. All
information regarding their belief in futurity is with difficulty
extracted, and not much importance is placed on the fact of their
being immortal beings; at their death also the gi-eatest anxiety
appears to be about their family and relations left behind. They
admit its uncertainty, and fear nothing on the score of future
punishment. Upon the whole there is nothing in their belief of
a future state which affects much their general conduct through
life and as little on the approach of death. From this fact we may
conclude very reasonably that the foregoing system of their re-
ligion is the correct one, as they do not feel guilty of moral offenses
toward the Great Spirit entailing future punishment, but expect to
be rewarded for their devotedness in their manner of worship.
These Indians will also smoke, invoke, and give small pieces of
tobacco to the head of a bear after they -have killed it. But this
does not imply they are to meet the animal in a future state. It
is a kind of thanksgiving, tlirough the bear's head, to the powers
that have enabled them to accomplish the feat of killing it without
accident.
The killing of a grizzly bear by a single man is no trifling matter
and deservedly ranks next to killing an enemy. A coup is counted
for that action in their ceremonies where they publicly recount their
brave exploits. Moreover, every year persons are torn to pieces
by these animals when wounded or surprised in thickets where the
person can not escape. Therefore all ceremonies to the dead animal
would have the nature of invocations for aid and protection from
500 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ANN. 46
the supernatural powers whose business it is to interfere, and indeed
such their words imply on these occasions. It may have been some
such ceremony the Indian on the shores of Lake Superior made
which was mistaken for begging the animal's pardon.
Mythologt
This subject would not present any useful information and only
tire the reader with endless fable without arriving at any impor-
tant conclusions. We could fill volumes with their stories of giants,
demons, transformations of men into animals and other shapes, but
do not think any fact thus elicited would avail any useful purpose.
There are a great many traditions that would seem to prove that the
doctrine of metempsychosis has formerly been the general belief, but
they do not appear to put much confidence in their reality at the pres-
ent day, and these stories are told more for amusement every evening
than anything else. Neither does it pleasg absolutely to contradict
or deny that such things have been. In this way beaver are said to
have been once white men from the sagacity they show in building
their lodges, evading traps, etc. Thunder is said to be the flapping
of the wings of the large medicine bird. Piles of rocks are supposed
to have been heaped up by large white giants. The rainbow is called
the sun's wheel ; though they are aware that the colors are formed by
the sun shining through rain. All these and hundreds of others have
legends of their formation which are very long and one or two gener-
ally occupy an evening to relate. Most of them, however, contain a
kind of moral or double meaning and are occasionally interesting and
imaginative, sometimes obscure.
To present an example we will record one recited by the " Thimder
Stomach," an Assiniboin warrior at the time we write and inter-
preted by myself, pi-eserving as nearly as possible all the words and
actually all the ideas of the Indian.
THUNDER STOMACH, AN ASSINIBOIN WARRIOR
In the beginning a few Indians were made far in the northern
regions. No sun nor moon had yet been formed, and all was utter
darkness except the light of the snow. A lodge of Indians was sit-
uated on the bleak plains inhabited by eight persons who were seven
brothers and one sister. The brothers all went out hunting and left
the woman at home working at raiment. In their absence a stranger
came outside the lodge and called to the woman to come out, using
flattering words with a sweet mouth, but she moved not, nor looked
upon his face. When her brothers returned she related the circum-
DENIO] THE ASSINIBOIN 501
stance, and the eldest said, " You did right, my sister — had you
listened to this man's sweet words and looked upon his face, yon
would have been obliged to follow, him wherever he went, without
the power to stop or turn back." She said nothing but continued
her labors and they again left to hunt.
Being anxious to ascertain the truth concerning the stranger and
expecting his visit, she ]iut on four complete suits of raiment and
four pairs of moccasins, one on top of the other ; also tied on a pair
of snowshoes. He came and used the same flattering words, when
she stepped outside and looked upon his face. He immediately de-
parted at a swift pace and she was obliged to follow in his tracks.
Onward they traveled far over the plains in a northerly direction
and over immense piles of snow. A long time passed without dimin-
ishing their speed, until at length they came to a lodge full of
men (beings). Her conductor entered and disappeared, she fol-
lowed and not seeing him took her seat near the door. " Move to the
next," said the man at her side, " I am not he whom you seek," and
she moved where he directed. " Farther on," said her neighbor, and
she again changed her place. " Next," said the other, and she moved
in this way from one to the other, until by making the circuit of the
lodge she at last found herself at the entrance without seeing the
one whom she had followed hither. She was about to leave the lodge
when the eldest Indian, apparently the master, said, '' Remain, I will
tell you a story." She stopped. " There was once a woman," he
continued, " who ran off with a young man, and came to a lodge full
of strange I's to seek her lover. She had on four entire dresses, and
not finding the man, would have left, but one of her dresses fell off.""
On saying this, an entire dress and pair of moccasins disappeared.
He repeated the words four times and at the end of each repetition
a dress was missing, which left her naked. They then took her up
and cast her out into the cold snow to freeze to death.
The brothers on their return from hunting missed their sister and
suspecting the cause of her departure followed the tracks and arrived
outside the lodge where they foimd their sister nearly frozen to
death. After wrapping her in a robe, and she had somewhat recov-
ered, the eldest brother said, " Go back into the lodge and tell them a
story in return." She entered and said, " I come to tell a tale. There
was once a woman coaxed off and forced to follow a strange man.
She came to a lodge of strangers, who instead of protecting her,
robbed her of all her clothing and threw her out in the snow to die.
Such men have no hearts." On concluding, the hearts of all the
Indians inside flew out of their mouths and stuck to the lodge poles
^This remark recalls the story of the Babylonian Ishtar, who was represented as
losing one by one her seven garments and then as receiving them back again one by one.
5'
502 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ann. 46
outside, where they were cut to pieces by the brothers. She left with
her brothers for their home, but got separated from them in a snow
storm and wandered every way, she know not whither. In the end,
after a long time she came to a large house of iron with flames of
fire coming out of the chimney. She feared to enter. " Come in,
said the master of the house. " If I enter, how shall I be treated ?
What relation shall I bear to you?" "I will be j'our brother," he
said. " No," was the answer. " I will be your father." " No," was
again the answer. " Your uncle," " your friend," still " no " was her
answer. " I will be your husband." This time she replied " Yes,"
the large iron doors flew open and she entered, they closing violently
behind her.
The inhabitant was a large, ugly man. and the interior of the
building was strewn with human carcasses half devoured in their
raw state. He was the first cannibal ! The woman would have
fled but could not, and was compelled to become his wife according
to her promise. He treated her badly and although not forcing her
to eat human flesh was continually devouring it himself. They lived
as man and wife for a length of time, during which she had a male
child by him. The brothers had never given up the search for their
lost sister, and in the course of their travels for that purpose came
to the house of the cannibal during his absence. The woman let
them in and recognized them. The child was beginning to speak a
few words, and among the first he pronounced were : " Mother, what
fine, fat men ; kill one of them that I may eat some good meat." The
brothers stared — the child was a cannibal ! " You little fool," said
the mother, "would you eat your own uncle?" The brothers held
a council with their sister as to the way the cannibal being could
be killed and she undertook his destruction. It appears this being
had the power of coming into his house any way he chose, thi'ough
the floor, through the walls, or any other manner, and the only vul-
nerable part of him was a cavity in the top of his head, not protected
by the bone of the skull. She heated a stone red hot, and when the
cannibal as usual was coming up through the floor, head foremost,
she threw the stone into the hole in his head and burned up his
brains, causing instant death.
She then fled to a place of rendezvous appointed by her brothers,
taking her child along. They returned to their home with their
sister, and when they arrived held a council and condemned the
child to death, to prevent the propagation of the race of cannibals.
It was killed by the mother, and on killing it she was changed into
a body of fire, caught up into the heavens and placed as the fiist
star in the north, which was the polar star. The seven brothers
were also changed into stars and form the constellation known as
DENIG]
THE ASSINIBOIN 503
the Great Bear and are appointed to walk around and keep guard
over their sister forever.
After the narrator had conchided I inquired if it had any other
meaning than a story told to excite interest. He said it had, and
that it showed the woman was revenged on all her persecutors, and
for her resolution and good in cutting off the first cannibal and her
own son, thereby destroying the species, was rewarded by being
placed as a star; likewise her brothers who had protected her
through life were stars also and guard her from harm. That if she
had not acted thus a great part of the Indians would be cannibals.
This he said was the commencement of stars, and their traditions
named many other instances of like manner in which stars were
created.
Manners and Customs
Constitution of the Assiniboin Family; Kinship. — There are
terms for each degree of relationship and the collateral branches.
These affinities are traced as far back as the great-grandfather, and
the line of descent is distinguished by their referring to the names
of the grandfather, father, or parents through some of their descend-
ants living. The names for collateral relatives are the same by the
father's as by the mother's side. All stepchildren become the chil-
dren of all the wives the Indian has. The terms aunt and uncle are
the same on both sides. The elder brother is called Ma-chin'-ah and
the rest of the brothers Mis-soon-kah; the youngest is named the last.
The eldest sister is called Me-tun'k-ah and the rest of the sisters
Me-choon-ah. Their names are the same on either part. The name
of a dead person is seldom mentioned, or if so, in a very low voice.
Usually they name some living relative, and add his or her dead
father. Where confusion exists as to a distant collateral relative
they are all classed under the general head of cousins, though they
are generally correct. They always address one of their nation as
kindretl if there is reason to believe the least possible degree of rela-
tionship is acknowledged, and never use their proper names if they
are of kin. The name of the mother-in-law or father-in-law is never
pronounced by* the son-in-law. She never speaks to him nor he to
her, neither do they ever look at the face nor go into the same lodge.
Should the father-in-law happen to go into a lodge where his son-
in-law is seated, the latter would cover his face with his robe and
not speak while the former remained. Usually they stop the one
entering by crying out, " He of whom you are ashamed is here,"
when the other goes away and postpones his visit. All communica-
tions on business to these people by their son-in-law is transacted
through his wife or strangers. To speak to or name the father or
mother of an Indian's wife would excite the ridicule and laughter
504 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [bth. ANN. jr.
of the whole camp. They refer to them in speaking by mentioning
my father- or mother-in-law, as the case may be, or sometimes say
" my wife's father," or " her mother." A woman does not mention
the individual name of her husband nor he hers, but always say
'• my husband " or " my wife." Most of the bands being made up of
relatives, the terms denoting kindred are in constant use in
conversation.
The hunter state with all these prairie tribes is precarious and un-
certain. They are often weeks and months without enough meat and
not infrequently reduced to absolute famine. Whenever the buifalo
are plenty they have no difficulty in procuring more meat than they
can use and then do dry some, but they are very improvident and
their small supplies are soon exhausted.
Indians who have numbers of horses, like the Crows and Sioux,
follow the buffalo at all seasons, with their camp, but those who have
but few horses, like the Assiniboin, can not follow them through the
deep snow. When they are far from tlieir lodges the men go over the
snow on snowshoes and pack the hides to camp on, dogs. From obser-
vation and experience they know that the buffalo approach the timber
when the snow is deep on the plains to eat twigs and wild rosebuds.
They therefore place their camps along some stream in the com-
mencement of the winter and await their approach. None of these
nations except the Cree are good elk and deer hunters, consequently
their whole dependence is on the buffalo, which, as we have stated,
is precarious. Their raiment made of skins is durable, one suit being
sufficient for a year, and game is always found in sufficient number
to furnish them with garments before they actually need them.
There is no distress on this score. Their habits and pursuits, as will
be seen through these pages, do not admit of their wearing any other
material than that made of skins; except in warm weather and for
show on occasions, none other is worn.
Inasmuch as women are of great advantage to the Indians by their
labor, a plurality of wives is required by a good hunter. The do-
mestic peace of a family does not suffer much on that account. There
are, to be sure, quarrels among the women occasionally^ but these gen-
erally end in personal abuse and recrimination, or are quelled by the
master, if present
Upon the whole the domestic arrangement is benefited by having
the labor divided, which would be too much for one woman. The
Indians, mostly, treat their wives well, but these women require
a hard ruler and sometimes they are obliged to strike severely. Jeal-
ousies among the women of the same lodge are nothing and do not
affect the actions of the man further than to stop the disturbance.
But jealousy on the part of the man toward some one of his women
supposed to be unfaithful are accompanied by terrible punishments.
i>ExMG] THE ASSINIBOIN 505
not infi-equently by death. Among the Blackfeet the noses of the
women are cut off for this offense; others stab, strike, or kill as it
happens. Women are not interfered with by the men in their man-
agement of household affairs. Such interference would excite too
much ridicule for their pride.
Are the labors of husband and wife equally divided ? The occupa-
tions of the man are as follows: Setting aside that of war which
he occasionally follows after having a family, though not often,
he is obliged to keejD the family in meat and skins, and this occupies
about one-third of his time. He makes his own bows and arrows,
snowshoes, powder horns, and all implements of war and the chase,
not purchased. He furnishes horses, either by war, bargains, or
other means; collects, waters, and guards his horses; makes traps
for wolves and foxes and kills and skins them ; attends councils,
feasts, and ceremonies; protects his family from insult and injury,
and risks his life for them in hunting in different ways; all of which
should be taken into consideration as forming a portion of his time
and labor.
Sometimes his women will accompany him to the hunt and aid
in skinning and butchering the animal, but this is only when the
buffalo are near the camp. She never participates in his labors on
other occasions. The usual occupations of the women are, to prepare
the skins and dress them, which is a tedious and laborious operation ;
to cut up the meat in thin slices and dry it ; to make all the clothing
for the familj', make lodges, cook, take care of their children and
dogs, bring wood and water, pack and unpack animals, erect the
tents, strike them, arrange the interior, carry burdens in traveling,
render grease, pound meat, work at garnishing with beads and
porcupine quills, make dogs travailles, saddle and unsaddle the mas-
ter's horse, etc. In nations where canoes are used, the men make the
frame and the women sew and stitch over it the bark or skin. Men
make the paddles, pans, bowls, cradles, and pipes. This is among
the Cree and Chippewa. With those who plant, the labor of hoeing,
planting, gathering, drying, and shelling the corn is all done by the
women and children ; but with these less hunting is done.
Owing to the length of time required to scrape, stretch, dry, dress,
and smoke even one skin it will be seen that the labor of the woman
is much greater than that of the man, and she must have help or
she could not attend to the domestic affairs of a large family.
A surplus of dressed skins is also necessaiy to buy the supplies they
can not and do not make and to replace stolen or crippled horses.
Thus an Indian with )jut one wife can not amass property, as the
whole of her time would be employed in the absolute requisite domes-
tic labors without being able to collect any skins for trade.
SS253°— 30 33
506 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ann. 46
Tlie first woman an Indian marries and the last are generally his
favorites, the first because he has become accustomed to her ways,
has children by her, and who manages the lodge in all its domestic
arrangements, and the last because she is youngest and often hand-
somest. The actual labor performed b}^ either of these is not near
as great as by the other women. Indeed, all the others are looked
upon in the light of laborers. To support several women, of course,
requires greater exertions on the part of the man in hunting, but this
is more than compensated for by their labor in dressing skins, which
enable him to purchase horses, guns, and other means to hunt with
greater facility. When buffalo are plenty, anyone can kill. The
raw hide of the animal has no value. It is the labor of putting it
in the form of a robe or skin fit for sale or use that makes its worth.
Women therefore are the greatest wealth an Indian possesses next to
his horses. Often they are of jirimary consideration, as after war
by their labor is the only way he could acquire horses, the only
standard of their wealth.
There is never any difficulty regarding raiment. Skins are durable
and during the summer (when they make it) every Indian will kill
enough animals for that purpose. He must do so or die, as but a
small portion of the skins of the animals requisite for food will fur-
nish the clothing. As it stands in the winter season, the women are
never idle, the men also hav^ pretty constant employment, but from
spring till fall they both have a comparatively easy life. Domestic
discords are not very common in their lodges.
They do, however, happen, and jealousy on the part of the master
is the principal cause. All Indians have great forbearance with
their families. When not excited or disappointed in some other way
they will put up with almost everything their women say or do, and
endeavor to laugh it off. The women study their humor, choose their
time for this, and never press it so far as to enrage their husbands.
If an Indian has returned from an unsuccessful hunt, lost his horses,
or any other circumstance has taken place, to sour his temper, all his
family immediately perceive it, and the greatest attentions are paid
to him or his wants as long as this humor lasts. Some men will on
these occasions tease and find fault with everything in the lodges, but
they are not contradicted nor quarreled with. It is now their time
to forbear, and well they know that punishment of no trifling kind
hangs on a slender thread.
Discords of a nature to bring on contention and blows are uncom-
mon except those arising from the jealousy of the man toward
some one of his women. Even a look or a word in secret to a strange
man is often sufficient to produce a blow or a stab. Upon the whole,
however, they live in tolerable harmony, much more so than would be
DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 507
supposed to exist among savages. The loss of youth and youthful
attractions is not a cause of neglect, particularly if the woman has
children by her husband. An Indian seldom exliibits any ill feeling
toward his first wife, but on the contrary depends upon her to employ
and manage the others. In this and all the domestic labors she
is the principal and is addressed as such and possesses more influence
over the man at middle age than ever or than any of the others.
No doubt the youngest is a more attractive but not so useful an
inmate, and gain is the principal object of the master. Wives are
even more valuable in extreme age than parents, though but few
live a great length of time. Their labors are too severe. Men of
family are not very amorous; they study their interest. Children
give the wife great additional power over the husband, so much so
that even if afterwards they prove unfaithful or very obstinate they
are punished but retained, whereas without offspring they would
be cast off for the same offenses. The first wife, though not neces-
sarily, nor always, the eldest, retains the preference, as has been
stated ; she is the domestic councillor.
The jealousies arising among the women are only occasional bick-
erings in the absence of the master, who if he perceives anything of
the kind going on or anything else to mar his peace soon settles it
by the argument of the tomahawk. Men of family are dignified, use
great forbearance toward those under their charge, and consider it as
disgraceful to be engaged in quarrels and squabbles with women,
seldom interfere or abuse them, never strike their children, but evince
a determination to see their home rendered pleasant and agreeable.
Young women are vain, fond of dress, yet this is no source of discord.
Fine dress is not sought eagerly by women of middle age. More
frequently they take a pride in dressing the youngest wife, or their
children, if any, even at their own expense, which greatly pleases the
master and induces him to flatter them otherwise for this mai'k of
respect.
There is order enough preserved in every Indian lodge to suit their
mode of life and with a delicacy toward guests that would merit
imitation elsewhere. If a child cries during conversation it is taken
out. Boys and young men keep their mouths shut when the masters
speak. They do not contradict, abuse, or interrupt. All have their
l^laces for sitting and sleeping, at the head of which, if men, are
placed their arms and accouterments ; if women, their sewing, gar-
nishing, etc. These jDlaces are arranged by the eldest wife or by the
grandmother as soon as the lodge is erected by spreading skins on the
ground, and are uniformly the same in the same family. They can
be and are changed whenever the necessities of the men require it,
though the individual's local privileges are not thereby disturbed.
4
508 TPJBES OF THE UppER MISSOURI [eth. ann. 46
Places are reserved for strangers or visitors, and baggage, water,
cooking utensils, and provisions have each their space allotted. This
is not perceived immediately by casual observers, but would be realized
by a short residence. To present a more lucid idea of these locations
in the interior, we submit the drawings (pis. 74 and 75), with the ad-
ditional remark that the skin door is locked on the inside on jroins to
bed by the mistress of the lodge to prevent the entrance of dogs and
other intruders. The fastening is made by a paddle of wood twisted
in a cord attached to each end of the transverse stick that forms the
support of the skin door; the ends of the paddle are then thrust
through the poles of the lodge and secured by loops of cord for the
purpose. The whole is so constructed that any person acquainted
with it would have some trouble to shut or open the door, even in
the daytime. The form as represented in general, though, of course,
differs when the family circle is gi-eat or small, but the same correct
appointments of places are visible in all, be the inhabitants few or
many. Sometimes different families, yet some way related, in de-
fault of lodging are compelled to occupy the same lodge; in this case,
although they may be somewhat crowded, yet there is always a
delicacy of arrangement made to prevent the promiscuous location
(if the different sexes.
Camp Life
In an Indian camp after one has become acquainted the very op-
posite of taciturnity presents itself. The evenings are devoted to
jests and amusing stories, and the days to gambling. "When not able
to raise amusement among themselves they will invite some old man
to relate fables and stories of the olden timie. The soldiers' lodge
when not in session is the very theater of amusement and gaming
by the chiefs and soldiers, all sorts of jokes are passed, and obscene
stories told. Scarcely a woman in camp escapes their ribaldry, and
they, consequent!}', never go near there. Yet, when business is to
be attended to the reverse is the case, and one would not think
it was then occupied by the same set of people. Ordinarily during
the day in private families there is an evenness of temper, and great
cordiality exhibited, with much affection shown to their children.
These traits and amusements are not more observable when situated
in remote parts of the plains alone, than in a large camp, jjerhaps
not so much so for want of suflicient sources of anuisement. Tlie
Indian of the plains or real savage is not the stoic ordinarily repre-
sented. Dancing, feasting, gaming, singing, stories, jests, and merri-
ment occupy their leisui'e houi-s, and then all is fun and humor;
but when in jjursuit of game, sitting in council, traveling, trading,
or war they are cautious, serious, quiet, and suspicious.
DENiG] THE ASSINIBOIN 509
The number of meals they have in each 24 hours depends altogether
on the supply of meat on hand. If plenty, each lodge cooks regu-
larly three times per day — at daybreak, midday, and dark. But in
addition to this pieces are kept roasting by the fire by the women
and children nearly all the time.
Feasting is also common. In all those ways in times of plenty most
of the men eat six, eight, ten, and as high as twenty times during a
day and night. In times of comparative scarcity but two meals are
had, morning and night. When meat is very nearly exhausted one
meal must suffice, and for the rest the women and children are sent
to dig roots or gather berries as the season and place afford. Feasts
would then be desirable, but there is no one to make them, all being
in want. Some who have nothing at all to eat in their lodge will send
their children to watch when cooking is going on in another lodge,
who report to their parents, and the man happens to drop in at the
right time. No Indian eats before guests without offering them a
share, even if it is the last portion they possess.
When no meat can be found they eat up their reserve of dried
berries, pomme blanche and other roots, then boil the scrapings of
rawhide with the buds of the wild rose, collect old bones on the
prairie, jjound them and extract the grease by boiling. A still
greater want produces the necessity of killing their dogs and horses
for food, but this is the last resort and approach of actual famine,
for by this they are destroying their means of traveling and hunting.
One thing is remarkable, be they ever so much in want of food, the
grown persons never murmur nor complain, though the children
sometimes cry.
Their appetites are capricious. It would seem that they are always
hungr}'. The quantity of meat an Indian can eat is incredible, and
after eating at six or eight feasts in succession his appetite appears
fully as good for the tenth or even the twentieth as at the first.
Their power in this respect as actually witnessed by us on many
occasions would not be credited if related. It is useless to endeavor
to impress upon the minds of persons not accustomed to this even an
approach to the truth. It can not be realized. A lean, lank Indian
will eat from 3 to 10 hours nearly all the time and grow gradually
larger from his breast downward until in the end he presents some-
what the appearance of the letter " S," and all this without any
apparent inconvenience. At other times they are from eight to fifteen
days without eating anything, and often one or two months with
barely enough to support life. After being deprived of food for a
great length of time, and arriving suddenly on an abundance of
game, they will feast again as observed and no evil effects follow.
510 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MiaSOURI [eth. ann. 46
They make no address nor grace to Wakonda or any other
supernatural power at ordinary meals, or common feasts. This is
done on stated occasions which will be mentioned hereafter.
COUKTSHIP AND MaRRIAGE
The way courtships are conducted is that the suitor in the first
place always endeavoi's to induce the girl to run away with him. He
has two objects in this. First, it shows her great regard for him and
flatters his vanity that she leaves her parents and departs to another
band, with and under his protection. Next, having the girl in his
possession obviates the possibility of a refusal, and also he can
afterwards pay his own price for her instead of that demanded by
her relatives. To accomiDlish this they paint, dress, and adorn them-
selves extravagantly, and are always on the watch to catch the woman
outside or away from the view of her parents. He dogs her steps
so closely that opportunities must present themselves when he can
recite to her his tale of love. Of course this consists of the usual
promises and flatteries used by all men for like purposes which often
prove successful. Should he obtain her consent to depart with him
they will agree upon a place of rendezvous and signal, which he
repeats to her in the night with his flute from outside the lodge at
the appointed time to meet him, and they leave, traveling night and
day until they arrive at another camp. Here they stay with some
distant relative or friend three or four weeks and return as man and
wife, when he looks around for some means to satisfy the parents.
Or it sometimes happens that having become tired of her in the
meantime he throws her on their hands and proceeds to seduce
another. The young Indians are great profligates and boast of their
success in this way.
If, however, by all their eilorts they can not succeed in this they
then mai-ry. When this is decided upon no courtship is necessary.
The suitor sends a horse by the hands of some resi^ectable old man
who ties the animal to the door of the lodge where her 2:)arents reside
and, entering, presents a pan of cooked meat to the girl who is de-
sired as a wife. Consent is asked and obtained or refused through
the medium of this man. The nearest of kin are always asked
(the girl's father and mother) ; if she have neither then the eldest
brother, or uncle, etc. If the parents refuse, both the victuals and
horse are sent back and negotiation ends. But if the suitor be de-
termined to have her he will try again, sending two or three horses,
guns, kettles, and all he can raise, until objection on that score is
overruled and she becomes his property by going to his lodge at
dark and remaining there. When the right price is paid the offer
DENIO] THE ASSINIBOIN 511
is seldom rejected, though refusals are given on other grounds, such
as old family feuds, or inability on the part of the applicant as a
hunter or warrior. There is no tradition of the institution of mar-
riage. It is a bargain and looked upon in this light by both parties,
not mei-ely a contract of sale, but one of amity, friendship, and
mutual support of all related and concerned. Courtships and pres-
ents are only resorted to when the possession of the girl is aimed at
without the consent of the parents. Otherwise the consent of the
girl is not necessary, she being obliged to obey the wishes of her
parents.
Neither the priests nor doctors nor any one else is consulted on
these occasions, except the nearest relatives, and the negotiator is
some man of standing or relation of the applicant. There is no
parade or ceremony on the occasion nor are any gifts made by the
mother-in-law to her daughter. On the contrary the son-in-law is
regarded as their property. All he has and does is for years to the
advantage of his wife's jaarents. The most of the meat and skins
killed by him are carried to her parents by her until she has a child
and her husband commences working for himself. The foregoing
is the marriage of a young man with a young woman. The son-in-
law, as has been stated, never enters the lodge of his wife's parents.
Even in a casual passing when they meet elsewhere he is obliged to
hide his face by drawing his robe over it, being as they say " abashed
by them " or abashed to name or speak to them.
The men usually marry between the ages of 20 and 25 years and
the women are given away from the age of 12 years upward. We
are acquainted with but two instances of men of middle age among
them who have never been married. The young of both sexes are
extravagantly addicted to dress, particularly the beaus, who dress,
paint, feather, and adorn themselves in every way imaginable,
especially about the head, and are the most consummately vain fops
in existence.
Widowers and widows remarry, the former in about one year after
the loss of their wife and the latter from one to two and three years
after the death of their hu.sbands, in proportion as they are grieved
for their loss. After a woman has had children her chances for a
young husband are few, but middle-aged men do not consider this
any objection if she in other resjDects is able to work and has a repu-
tation for industry. The most advantageous time for a man to pur-
chase a wife is on his return from a successful war excursion with
the horses of his enemies in his possession. The manner in which his
means to purchase have been procured gives him additional favor
both with the girl as a brave man and with the girl's parents as
one who can at any time repair their losses in horses if it be neces-
512 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [bth. an.v. 46
sary. After marriage the brothers-in-law on both sides become
friendly, associate, make feasts, and exchange gifts, aiding each other
on all occasions. No quarrels take place among them, nor indeed
among any near relations. The whole forms a posse, a body, a sup-
port in times of trial, need and danger.
The right of divorce lies altogether with the husband. If a man
has childi'en by his wife he seldom puts her away even for adultery,
the greatest offense. He will punish, but retain her on that account.
Should they separate, all the larger children — that is, those who
required no nurse and were able to take care of themselves — would
remain with the man and the smaller ones depart with the woman.
When the women have no children they are turned off without any
scruple for much less offenses, or from jealousy by young husbands.
Elder Indians require the labor of their women; therefore seldom
willingly discharge them. Should he choose to do so, however, no
one has a right to object, nor is any other consent asked; they are
his property and he can do as he pleases with them. Occasionally
they part from them a year or so and take them back afterwards.
No property is given to the woman in the event of a separation.
Music
Their music on the flute referred to herein merits some notice.
The instrument is made of wood, about the length and size of an
octave flute, and the mouth on the principle of a whistle. There
are four finger holes above and one underneath for the thumb. No
tune or anything approaching it can be produced from this instru-
ment, yet they can sound different calls in a shrill tone. It is played
in several of their dances as an accompaniment to singing, not, how-
ever, producing any sound accordant with the voice. The principal
jaurpose for which it is made and used is love maldng. By the
various notes the following intelligence can be conveyed by the man
outside to the woman inside the lodge, without any of the inmates
except her knowing for whom they are intended, as the whistle can
be distinctly heard at the distance of 100 yards or more: " I am here
waiting for you," " I am watched," " Kcmain," " I will come again,"
" Meet me to-morrow," and several other communications of a like
nature. The meanings of these different sounds are agreed upon
and understood by the parties beforehand. As the instrument admits
of considerable variation in its tone and note all their calls are
different, and no other person would understand them rightly.
They might suspect some assignation to be going forward, but would
not know with or between whom. Songs and this whistle are used
in their serenades and dances.
dknig] the assiniboiit 513
Longevity
The changes, exposures, and deprivations attending on the life of
the roving tribes are without doubt great causes of the slow increase
of Indian population. We think from actual observation that not
more than two out of five children live until youth is jjassed. Even
a few days after their birth, and sometimes but a few hours after,
they are packed on the backs of tlieir mothers in all weather, exposed
to cold, snow, and wet. They must be iron to stand this. Should
they be so fortunate as to reach the age of 4 to 6 years they follow
the camp on foot through spring thaws, exposed to rain and cold,
for weeks together, and a gieat many thus die from cold, pleurisy,
and rheumatism. No question but the uncertainty of their food also
contributes to their mortality, not that thej' often absolutely starve
to death, but are rendered weak and unable to stand the hardship the
life requires. In maturity war takes off another portion of the re-
mainder, and diseases contracted by the exposures of their youth,
together with their continued exertions as required by their pre-
carious life, places it beyond probabilitj' of many arriving at extreme
age. It is evident that the hard labor the women perform after mar-
riage ruins their constitutions. A woman is old on the plains at the
age of 35 years, and seldom healthy. They have from 2 to 5 chil-
dren, more are occasionally seen, but 7 or 8 is a rare occurrence.
There are but few very old women. The usual diseases by which
they are carried off are pains in the head, heart, and side, con-
sumption, hemorrhages from the nose and other ducts, puerperal
fever, peritoneal inflammations, deliveries, and rheumatism.
Some of these complaints are certainly produced by their continued
stooping when in the act of scraping skins, others from exposure, and
all aggravated by their injudicious medical treatment.
A woman ceases to bear at 40 years, often earlier. Children hare
been produced by women at the age of 15, though this is uncommon ;
from 18 to 35 is the usual period. Twins are often seen ; that is as
frequently as this happens among the same number of white women.
It is remarkable that women who bear twins are liable to a repetition
of twin bearing, and two or three pairs follow. Two instances have
happened under our observation where women had tliree children
at a delivery. Barrenness is met with, but is by no means common.
Hospitality
Entertaining visitors forms one of the Indian's chief employments.
Some of these meetings partake of the nature of dinner and supper
parties. They are then called feasts. But as these will meet with
consideration elsewhere we will allude in this place only to the cus-
tom of ijrivate entertainment, generally ascribed to hospitality. In-
514 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ann. 46
dependent of feasts, visiting and invitations to visit, as stated, occupy
a great ^Dart of their time. Most of their private business, bargains,
settling disputes, hearing news, asking advice, required loans, and
indeed all their transactions with individuals are carried on when
visiting, or invitations are sent with that view. They also invite
to preserve good feeling and friendly relationship, but usually there
is some point to be gained, or advantage to result from these 'pains.
After cooking and preparing ready whatever is to be offered and
having the lodge swept and put in order, a boy is sent to the lodge
or lodges of their guests, or he hunts them up through the camp,
saying to each " You are invited " or " called," directs him to the
lodge of his parents, and proceeds to pick up the others. Being
acquainted with the situation of all the lodges, they are at no loss
to find the way, or if they are, inquire of any one in the neighbor-
hood. If strangers are invited, or whites, the boy precedes as guide
and they follow. When the guests arrive they enter one after the
other, saying on entering, " I have come." They are shown to a
seat in the back part of the lodge, nearly opposite the entrance,
where clean skins have been spread on the ground for their reception.
If several are expected, the first who come talk and smoke with
the master until all have arrived or been heard from. The pipe
being laid aside, the woman of the lodge dishes out the meal in
wooden bowls, lianding one to each. When all are served the master
says " Eat ye." They fall to, but neither he nor any of his family
partake of it while their visitors remain. The guests, however, are
expected to do justice to the repast, and the more heartily they
partake the better pleased the host appears. WTien the meal is over
and the dishes laid aside the pipe is again introduced, and during
the conversation of an hour or so that follows the object of the
invitation is disclosed, and whatever business it is most likely settled
or whatever favor desired granted. Such a thing as disinterested
hospitality may possibly be met with, at least we have been present
on some of these occasions where the object of the call was not
visible, but it is entirely incompatible with a correct view of the
Indian character to infer thereby that he had no object. On stated
feasts, a feather, the lower end painted red, is sent as an invitation
card, but on all ordinary occasions the message is by some one of the
inmates of the lodge.
Casual visits without invitations are also common, sometimes only
with the view of getting a meal, but mostly to accomplish some end
or acquire some information. Guests, whether invited or not, are
always awarded precedence. Any insult or imposition on a guest,
once in an Indian lodge and under his protection, would be resented
with greater severity than the same toward themselves.
DENIQ] THE ASSINIBOIN 515
We can not perceive in all this seeming friendliness toward guests
any feeling of pure llospitalit3^ An Indian never willingly, or with-
out a motive, makes an enemy. The uncertainty of their lives and of
everything they possess is such that mutual reliance on each other
is required. It is more than probable that these attentions have for
their object the forming of a name for liberality and securing the
good will of as many neighbors as possible with the view of obtain-
ing their assistance in times of need, or which is more evident, for
present favors in small matters which are nearly always made
known at the close of the visit. In the instances where the real
object does not appear we are obliged to conclude that it lies deeper,
requires a course of entertainments to accomplish, but nevertheless
exists. When whites are invited and are merely travelers through
their country, nothing at the time can perhaps be gained, but the
rule holds good, for the Indians will always claim the same atten-
tions when they are in turn the visitors, besides additional demands
as a compensation for their hospitality. A casual observer would
believe them to be the most hospitable people in the world, but a
more minute acquaintance shows an undercurrent of pure selfishness
in all they do. The sharing of the meat with each other in times of
scarcity is no mark of liberality, or done from any other principle
than the foregoing remarks present. It is a loan, or obligation, laid
upon the person, to be repaid when their situations become reversed,
or whenever the claimant thinks proper to remind him of it, which
sooner or later he is sure to do in some way.
Indians of different nations are not only feasted by all the princi-
pal men in camp but loaded with presents to carry home. A short
time after the donators pay a visit to the homes of their guests and
receive as much or more in return.
Protecting a guest from insult and injury is done partly through
the fear of the ridicule that would follow were he suffered to be
badly treated in his lodge; it is a contempt of their power to sup-
port, and resented as such. Very often also it lays the stranger
under obligations which are expected to be paid for, and usually
are. Were we not limited in our remarks we could cite hundreds
of instances that would prove true hospitality to have no existence
among the savages of the plains. Everything they do and all their
study is for the interest of self, visible or invisible to others, accord-
ing to the nature of their views. We are not aware, however, that
this course of hospitality is pursued with the view of covering
stratagems, evil intentions, or to lull suspicion for the purpose of
committing bad acts; it appears only to operate as a furtherance to
all their ordinary wishes and bring about a favorable oppoi-tunity
to make requests and transact other business.
516 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ANN. 46
Midwifery, Childbirth, Naming
Nearly all the old women and most of those of middle age exercise
the office of midwives. When a woman, perceives the jjains of labor
approaching, the lodge is cleared of all the men and children except
the small ones, and the mother of the woman with some other
experienced female acquaintances are invited. The doctor is also
notified to have his medicine in readiness in case of it being wanted.
The woman is placed on her knees and sticks set up in this form
n placed before her. She presses the abdomen on the cross stick,
rubbing gently along it. The pains of labor are said to be very
severe. If danger is apprehended, the doctor is sent for and ad-
ministers a draft of pulverized rattles of the rattlesnake or decoction
of roots. If the doctor be a man, he then retires; but if a female
she remains. Cases of solitary confinement happen occasionally
from lonely situations. No nurse is provided; the mother takes
care of her children from their birth. The rite of circumcision is
not performed, but they evince a great desire that their children
should be naturally thus formed and attach an imaccountable im-
portance to that incident.
On the birth of a child a horse is given with other property to
those in attendance. After three weeks or a month has elapsed
the ceremony of giving it a name takes place. There is no regular
period of time for this, and sometimes five or six months pass before
it is done. The probability is in this case that it is the want of
means to pay for the ceremonial, as in these instances they give for a
reason, " the parents are too poor."
Usually, however, it is done about the time first mentioned and
this ceremonj' is the same whether the child be male or female. Some
medicine man generally makes the name, and sends word to the
parents that on a certain day he will bestow it on the child. When
the time has come a dog is killed and cooked or some other good
dish is provided, and invitations are sent to some 20 or 30 of their
friends and relatives to attend. When they are assembled the priest
makes known to them the object of the meeting in a suitable speech
to the supernatural powers, but principally to the tutelaries of de-
parted grandfathers and grandmothers, invoking them to take the
child under their protection, concluding with the name of the child
distinctly spoken in a loud voice so that all can hear it. The feast is
then divided, small portions thrown away for the dead and the rest
eaten. A horse in the meantime is tied outside as a present to the
medicine man for his services. He leads the horse around the camp,
singing in a loud voice the child's name and those of its parents.
If the child be a male this name is borne until he kills or strikes
DENIG]
THE ASSINIBOIN 517
his first enemy on their own (the enemy's) land. On his return
after accomplishing this, he blackens his face and that of his rela-
tives as a token of his triumph. Some one of the medicine men who
are always on the lookout for advantage blackens himself and gives a
new name to the warrior by crying it out loudly through the camp,
stating the change of name has been given in consequence of his
great bravery in killing his enemies.
A horse is again given the priest and the second name is attached.
This name lasts until by repeated successes at war he becomes en-
titled to the name of his father, if the parent be dead; if living,
that of his grandfather is bestowed, during a ceremony of the same
kind as has been related. But this name is never given without suf-
ficient merit on the part of the warrior. It is the highest honor that
could be bestowed, is never afterwards changed, and he ranks imme-
diately as a councillor and brave. The foregoing will account for
both the plurality of names among them and the manner in which
the original family .name and line of descent is preserved.
The names of females are not often changed, though some have two,
one affixed at the first ceremony and the other originating in some
marked feature, or personal appearance unusual among them, such
as fair hair, gray eyes, etc., and sometimes from any deformity, as
lameness, loss of an eye, teeth, etc. Generally, however, they have
but one. The names given to children are not taken from the inci-
dents of dreams or deemed sacred, but are the manufacture of the
priest according to his fancy. He endeavors to make one to please
the parents in order to secure the gift of the horse. This name is
told them secretly by him and if accejDtable is adopted ; if not, they
suggest another in its place to him.
The children and boys call each other familiarly by these names
as in civilized life, and when grown continue to do so, unless of
kin, when the degree of relationship is mentioned instead of the
name.
Herewith is a list of names, male and female. Of the warriors sev-
eral have two, but only one, the leader of the party here at the time,
had three. Their names were taken down for insertion in this place.
Those of the women I had of a warrioi- present, and those of the
chiefs and soldiers I have known for years, some of whom having
two or thi'ee names.
518 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [ETH. ANN. «
ASSINIBOIN NAMES
Partisan, " The Back of Thunder," Ya-pa-ta Wak-keum
Names of 27 Assiniboin Warriors at Fort Union, Deoeimbeb, 1853
Interpreted name. Indian name.
The Black Horn Hai-sap Sap-pah.
He Who Comes Laden Kee-hee-nah.
The War Club of Thunder Ya-chunk-pe Wah-ke-un.
Boiling Pe-gah.
The Backbone of Wolf Shunk-chan-ca-hoo.
The Four War Eagles Wah-min-de To-pah.
The Winner 0-he-an-ah.
The Standing Bear Wah-bo-san-dah.
The Crow Conghai.
The Little Rocky Mountains Ean-hhai-nah.
The White Crow Conghai-ska.
He Who Sounds the Ground Muk-kah-na-boo-boo.
The Bear's Child Wah-ghan-seecha Och-she.
The Iron Boy Muzza Och-she,
The Sound of Thunder Hhom-bo-oah Wah-ke-un.
The Grey Bull Ya-tunga-hho-tah.
He Who Deceives Calves Chin-chah-nah Ke-ni-ah.
The Dry Sinews Kun-sha-chah.
The Calf with Handsome Hair Chin-chah-nah He-wash-tai.
The Bull's Face Etai-tah Tun-gah.
The Wolverine Me-nazh-zhah.
The Two-horned Antelope Yah-to-kah-hhai noom-pah.
The Large Owl He-hun Tungah.
The Large War Eagle Wam-min-de Tun-gah.
The Child of Two Bears Wah-ghan-see-cha noompa och-she.
Le Pene Rouge Chai-shah.
Names of 12 Camp Soldiers
He Who Wishes to Bring Them Ekando He chin-ah.
The Red Bull Tah-tungah Du-tah.
The Bad Bull Tah-tungah Shee-chah.
The Red Snow Wah Du-tah.
The Blue Thunder Wah-ke Un-to.
The Emptying Horn 0-canah-hhai.
The Standing Water Minne Naz-zhe.
The Rose Bud Eater We-ze-zeet-ka Utah.
The Boy of Smoke Sho-to-zshu Och-she.
The Spotted Horn Hai-kan-dai Kan-dai-ghah.
Shot in the Face Etai-o-ke Nun-ei-a.
Bear's Face Etai Wah-ghan.
Names of Some Chiefs, Occasional Leaders of Bands
The White Head Pah ska-nah.
The Grey Eyes Esh-tai-o Ghe-nah.
The Pouderie Hee-boom An-doo.
The Tourbillon Ah- wah minne o minne.
DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN- 519
Interpreted name. Indian name.
The Little Thunder Wah-kee-e-nah.
The Knife Menah.
Hair Tied Up in Front Pai-pach Kich-tah.
He Who Wounds Dogs Shunga Ou-nah.
The Claws Shak-kai-nah.
The Great Traveler Ca-wai-ghai Man-ne.
He Who is Above the Others Wa-caun-too.
The Marksman Coo-tai-nah.
Names of 20 Young Assiniboin Women
The Spotted Woman Kan-dai-ghah We-yah.
The One Leg Boo wash e nah.
The Big Horn Woman Hai-kees-kah We-yah.
The Glittering Lodge Te Owah Ho-wat-tah.
The Four Thunders Wah-ke-un Topa.
The Four Women Topa Weyah.
The Season Maker Man-ka-cha Ca-ghah.
The Lodge on Fire Woman Te-ien da weyah.
She Who Makes the Clouds t Moh pe ah caghah.
The Door Serat cher Te opah u-cai-ghah.
The Wing Bone Hoo pah hoo.
The Crow's Cawing Coughai a-hho-ton.
The Head Made White Pah-kah shah-nah.
The Curled Hair Pah-hah e-vi-me-ne.
The Hawk Woman Chai-tun We-yah.
The Red Chief Hoon yuh shah.
The Mane of the Flying Eagle Ap-pai Wam-min-de E-i-ah.
The Yellow Bear Wah-ghan She-ehah-ze.
The Iron Body Chu-we Muz-zah.
The Fair-skinned Woman We-yah Skah.
Childrex
Cradles are not much used by the tribes of whom we write. A few
are seen among them which they procure from the Cree and Chip-
pewa. The back is a flat board with a bow bent
across the front where the head of the child is
placed. (Fig. 32.) A rim runs along the inside
the size of the child, cloths are attached inside this
rim to the boards or back, and the whole orna-
mented in various ways. The child is then bundled
up, inclosed in the rim, and the cloth covers strapped
over it. This is carried on their back, and at any
time should the cradle fall the child is protected
by the bow across from touching the ground. These ^'°- 32.— cradie
•^ . , , , . board
Indians make a kind of sack with ej^ed holes m
front of scarlet or blue cloth ornamented with beads, and the child
being well wrapped, all except the head, it is placed in the sack
and strapped up. There is no doubt but this is the cause of their
feet being straight, although they are not intoed, as one would judge
520 TP.IBES OF THE UPPER MISSOXJEI [etii. anx. 46
by their manner of walldng. We can offer no objection to this mode
of caring for children. Their natural growth is not affected thereby.
At least it is the only method they could adopt to answer in extremes
of cold, heat, and rain, with infants on their backs; besides their
lodging affords little room for the conveniences used by civilized
persons for rearing children.
They are as careful of their offspring as their manner of life will
allow. Children are never weaned under 2 or 3 years old, giving for
their reason that it retards their growth, but most likely having
nothing but meat that a child can eat, they are obliged to do so. They
call their mother enaw (mother) and their father at-tai (father).
They address their children ma-chunk-she (my daughter) and ma-
chink-she (my son). No abbreviations are used. They call them
also by their given or proper names when there are several. There
are no terms of endearment further than humming songs and mean-
ingless words, such as white nurses use to very small children.
The domestic government is exercised by both father and mother.
As long as the child is small the mother has the sole charge of it,
but when it begins to speak the father aids in forming its manners.
If a girl, he makes toy tools for scraping skins and the mother
directs her how to use them. She also shows her how to make small
moccasins, etc. Their first attempts in this way are preserved as
memorials of their infancy. When a little larger, the scale of
operations is increased and sewing, cooking, dressing small skins,
and garnishing with beads and quills are taught, together with
everything suitable for a woman's employment. If the child be a
boy the father will make it a toy bow and arrow, wooden gun, etc.
When a little larger he will give him still stronger bows and
bring unfledged birds into the lodge for his son to kill. Larger
still and lie runs about with a suitable bow after birds and rabbits,
killing and skinning them. Another stage brings him to learn the
use of the gun, to ride, approach game, skin it, etc., all of which is
taught him by his parent. The rest he acquires from the time aild
facility their manner of life affords for practicing these pursuits,
and at the age of 17 or 18 makes his first excursion in quest of his
enemies' horses.
The father never strikes nor corrects his children from their birth
to their grave, though the mother will sometimes give them a slap,
yet it must be done in his absence or she would meet with immediate
punishment. Notwithstanding this they are not nearly as vicious
as white children, cry but little, quarrel less, and seldom if ever fight.
The boys are somewhat annoying when about lii years old, but
seldom do any serious mischief. The behavior of the girls is shy and
modest.
DBNIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 521
The traditions related to the youno; in their lodges are usually
extravajrant fables and exploits of former warriors, exaggerated,
of course, to make them interesting. Many local data and memoirs
of events are thus preserved but so mingled with superstition by
the different narrators as not to present any reliable truth. Most
of the old men and many of middle age tell these stories in the lodges
when they are invited for the purpose.
The grandmothers are also well versed in this and night after night
the children learn a great deal, as soon as they are able to understand.
The lives and actions of former warriors and other events of real
life form a portion of the instruction thus conveyed.
These Indians living remote from civilization have no opportunity
to steal white children, and we have never heard of one among them
possessed by these means.
There are several half-breed children in all these nations, who,
being raised with the Indians, are the same in all respects.
Cases of infanticide are very common among the Sioux, Ci'ows, and
Assiniboin. perhaps most so among the Crow women. It is not far
from the correct number if we state that one-eighth of the children
are destroyed in utero or after birth by the Crow women. The same
also often is done by the Assiniboin, particularly if the father of the
child has abandoned the woman before its birth. A quarrel with
the husband or even unwillingness to be at the trouble of raising
them are the causes for these actions. We think and have strong
reason to believe that in some instances, they are destroyed at the
instigation of their husbands, although they will not acknowledge
this to be the case.
At all events no punishment is inflicted on the woman for the crime
but frequently the means and time they use to produce abortions are
the cause of the death of the mother. To produce its death in
the womb they use violent pressure and blows upon the abdomen.
Frequently they retire to the woods, bring forth the child alone,
strangle it and throw it into the water, snow, or bushes. The whole
of these measures are publicly talked of among them, and no great
degree of repugnance is attached either to the act or to the woman,
but the circumstance is laughed at as something ludicrous.
Male children are always desired by the husband. 'WTien small
we see no difference made in their treatment or any preference shown,
but when grown or nearly so the young man always takes precedence
and is considered of far greater value than the girl. The feeling
increases in his favor as he becomes of use at war or in the chase.
Daughters, when matured, are married and sold, and here the greater
interest in them ends; but sons are a source of profit and support
for a good portion of their lives.
88253°— 30 34
522 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth, ANN. 4«
Suicide
Widows do not burn themselves on the funeral pile on the decease
of their husbands, but frequently hang themselves for that loss, re-
venge, or for the loss of their children. Three suicides of this kind
have been committed within the last few months in this neighborhood
among the Assiniboin, one for revenge, the other two for the loss
of their children. The fii'st was the favorite wife of a camp soldier,
who being scolded and accused of crime by the eldest wife, after
telling her purpose, left the lodge, in the absence of her husband,
and disappeared. Although search was made, yet a week elapsed
before she was discovered hanging to the limb of a tree. She had
climbed the tree, tied the cord to the limb, and descending, hooked
on the noose standing on the ground, suspending her body by draw-
ing up her legs. She hung so low that her knees nearly touched
the ground and she could have risen to her feet at any time during
the operation.
Another woman had her son (a young man) killed by the Black-
feet, and immediately afterwards another of her children died from
disease. Several persons were appointed to watch the mother, sus-
pecting her intentions; but they all fell asleep and she hung herself
at the door of the lodge, between two dog travailles set on end. She
was a tall woman and could only produce strangulation by swinging
herself off the ground from her feet. She did it, however, and the
body was brought to the fort for interment.
The third was a still more unfortunate case. The child of this
woman had been sick some time and was expected to die. On the
night in question it fell into a swoon and was to all appearance dead.
No person being present the mother in the derangement of the mo-
ment went out and hung herself. The child recovered, but the
mother was dead.
Every year in this way the women hang themselves, sometimes for
the loss of their husbands, but more frequently on account of the
death of their children, or for revenge. Suicides are also common
among the men. They generally use the gun to produce death.
The Mandan and Gros Ventres, as has been stated, suspend them-
selves on sticks or skewers passed through incisions made in the
back, and the motive for so doing has already been adverted to.
Spots are worn on the forehead and the under lip by some of
either sex. Those on the women are for ornament. The bodies of
some of the men are covered with tattooing to denote the warrior
and brave. It is an operation requiring high payment, and is a mark
also of the liberality and riches of the person who undergoes it. but
no religious sects or opinions are thereby intimated. No rivers are
deemed sacred or coveted in death by any of tliem.
denig] the assiniboik 523
Personal Behavior
These tribes are not degraded in the scale of being in their ordi-
nary intercourse, connection or apparent actions. They frequently
exhibit a delicacy in all thess, but some of them, particularly the
Crows, are addicted to customs, revolting to liumanity, too much so
for a lengthened description, among which may be mentioned sodomy,
bestiality, etc. They all on occasions eat small portions of human
flesh, not as a relish Init to evince a savage fierceness toward the
dead enemy. The Arikara are said to have devoured several entire
bodies of their enemies in late years. We have witnessed a few cases
of cannibalism among the Assiniboin, but they happened in time
of actual famine, one of which we will describe. About eight or ten
years since a gi'eat famine prevailed among the Cree and Assiniboin.
They separated and scattered everywhere over the plains in quest of
game. It happened early in the spring when the ground was yet
covered with snow and no roots could be found. A Cree Indian
with his wife and three children were stationed near the head of Milk
River alone and had been without food for a great length of time.
The father took the occasion of his wife being out to kill and cook
one of his children, a portion of which he forced her to eat on her
return. When this was eaten, after an interval of some days he
killed a second and this was likewise devoured. Still no indication
of game presented itself. He desired her to go out that he might
kill the remaining child, which she absolutely refused to do, offering
herself in its stead.
It happened that some Assiniboin in traveling came upon his
lodge, and seeing them coming he had barely time to smear him-
self and his wife over with white clay, the symbol of mourning,
before they entered. To account for the disappearance of his chil-
dren he appeared very much grieved and said they had died from
want. The strangers, however, suspected all was not right, and
when he had stepped out they inquired of the woman, who told them
the truth. The visitors left after directing him to their camp,
where some game had lately been found, and he proceeded thither
with his lodge. When in the vicinity of the camp, he killed and
scalped his wife, throwing her body in the bushes, proceeded to
camp, displayed the scalp, stating he had killed a Blackfoot; that
they had attacked him and killed his wife. The camp turned out
(o search for enemies and discovered the body of the woman and
no trace of Blackfeet. The Indian in the meantime suspecting he
would be discovered absconded, leaving the small child and bag-
gage in camp. Being of another nation with whom they were at
peace, he was not pursued and yet lives, but is despised by all.
524 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ann. 46
At the period of the catamenia they sleep alone and are deemed
taboo for ten days. The word in their language expressing that
flux literally interpreted would mean " she who lives in a lodge alone,"
and their traditions state that it was formerly the custom to pitch a
tent outside for the woman to remain in during this period. After
childbirth a woman is deemed taboo for 45 days.
SCALPIKG
During a battle or whenever an enemy is slain they use no cere-
mony in taking the scalp except despatch. They are in great haste
to get off or out of danger, and have no time for useless delay. A
Imife is run round the cranium, the foot placed on the dead man's
neck and a sudden jerk takes it off. The cultivation of the scalp-
lock among the Sioux is a very ancient custom but we know of no
mode of tracing its antiquity. The rest of these tribes wear their
hair in any form that suits their fancy.
Oaths
The Indians have several kinds of oaths. They will say "Wa-
koiida hears me," or they will swear by the skin of a rattlesnake,
or the claws of a bear, wishing the snake to bite or the bear to tear
them if they fail to fulfill their oath. They generally keep their
oaths. The name Wakohda in this is uttered in an audible voice
with great solemnity and presenting the pi^De to the Sun.
When Indians meet on the plains they halt within a few paces
of each other, and if recognized as kin will name the relationship
existing in a smiling tone. If strangers, one will inquire, " Wliere
did you come from? " "Where going? " etc., during which they sit
down and proceed to light the pipe. "Wliile smoking they will
exchange news of their different places, make inquiries respecting
their friends, about game, and anything of general interest, and
when the pipe is finished they separate. No shaking of hands or
touching of persons takes place, but if meeting with whites they
will extend the hand to be shaken.
Smoking
This is so ancient a custom that even their traditions do not men-
tion a time when their forefathers or ancestors did not smoke. There
are tales among them whence came the tobacco seed and plant,
particularly among the Mandan, Crows and Arikara, and perhaps
among the Assiniboin, though we are not prepared at this time to
relate them.
denig] the assiniboin 525
Fame
The principal avenue of fame is the pursviit of war. Other things
tend to aid the individual and to render him respectable, as expert-
ness in hunting, powers of prophecy, necromancy, and a name for
wisdom, that is, the knowledge of governing, advising, making wise
speeches, etc., but all these rather follow than precede the elevation
of the man. Success in war is the first step ; the others increase the
importance of this. Acquiring a good many horses and women, by
and means whatever, brings an individual into notice and makes him
of importance, as thereby he can distribute many favors that a
poorer yet braver man can not. Wealth in this finds him friends
as it does on other occasions everywhere. But when rank is boasted,
or chieftainship aimed at, bravery and success in war with capacity
to lead are the principal requisites, without which all the other qual-
ifications would be of no avail. We are acquainted with no Indian
who has arisen to distinction without success in war being the
principal cause of his advancement.
Stoicism
The stoicism exhibited by all these nations appears to be partly
a natural disposition and partly a bias of their minds produced by
their peculiar mode of life. This display of feeling is only seen
when the circumstance requires it. It is considered a mark of manli-
ness to treat important subjects, transactions, and conversations with
deliberation and decorum. Lighter matters are discoui-sed upon
with appropriate levity. Their constant wants, shifts, and precarious
positions induce a thoughtful manner. The knowledge of each
other's duplicity and the many ways used to circumvent and deceive
to gain each his own ends produces caution. The uncertainty of
their lives, liability to be revenged upon, and treacherous conduct
generates suspicion. Being subject to severe reverses, extremes of
want and danger, etc., a recklessness of life follows. Besides being
the victims of superstitious dread, a morbidness of mind is acquired.
But even all these would not without some natural peculiar disposi-
tion of mind account for their want of excitement and taciturnity and
cover a liidden deep and dark design. Even when most expected, no
trace of passion would be perceived by a stranger, but among them-
selves, or those who are well acquainted with their ways, their eye,
countenance, smile, and every movement are as true an index to the
workings of their mind as are observable among civilized persons in
the most violent bursts of passion.
526 TEIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ANN. 46
Taciturnity
Silence is not considered a mark of wisdom. A very silent man
is not generally liked and somewhat feared, more so than a talkative
one. Their wisdom consists in making apparent their good sense
in speeches, advice, and in all their actions. Taciturnity may in some
degree arise from their want of sufficient topics of conversation, as
when obscene subjects are introduced this faculty is laid aside. All
their ceremonies partake of the nature of solemnities, but when these
are over and subjects or actions of a lighter nature employ their
time they are as jovial and noisy as can be. In general, however, in
common conversation Indians are not loquacious. Each sentence
appears to be studied and no useless or superfluous words are intro-
duced. They seldom speak twice or argue the point, even in debate
in council. Each one states his opinion freely without interruption,
and obstinately adheres to it. They never speak earnestly on a sub-
ject they do not thoroughly understand. They have a singular fac-
ulty of determination in everything they say or do. Even when
surprised in extremes of danger their decision to act is made on the
instant as if by instinct. No nervousness nor hesitation is evinced.
When escape from death becomes impossible they are stolid, stubborn,
and die like men.
Public Speaking
Their public speaking is only remarkable for applying their whole
mind and soul to the business in hand. They state their opinions in
a few words to the purpose, using only such metaphor as has a visible
bearing on its elucidation. A great deal of the effects of their oratory
is due to posture, gesture, and accent. The importance of the sub-
ject to them and their undivided attention bestowed upon it at the
time is the cause of their foi'cible remarks. Some of these speeches
are excellent in their way, but only so as they illustrate in a con-
densed form the opinions they wish to express. They are in fact the
real children of nature. The prevailing circumstance governs the
mind for the time and produces corresponding words and actions.
The young and rising no doubt imitate the elders in some of the
forms of set speeches but no pains are taken to learn them.
Tra^'el
When they travel at night and have no moon to afford light they
take their direction by the north star with which they are all
acquainted, but when stars also are invisible they observe at dark the
jioint from which the wind blows, and shape their course accord-
ingly. By these means they will be able to pursue a right direction
until they come to some hill or river with which they are acquainted,
DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 527
and regulate their travel from that point until the sun makes its
appearance, and then they are at no loss. Traveling on the plains is
much more difficult than in forests. In the terrible snowstorms that
sweep over these prairies, darkening the atmosphere and rendering
the sun, moon, and stars invisible, or indeed any object a short dis-
tance ahead, they are as much at fault to proceed as any other per-
son, and at these times lie down, let the snow drift over and cover
them, and remain thus until the storm passes, which is frequently
two or three days and nights.
There are many ways of determining within a few hours of the
time when an encampment has been deserted and the number of
persons composing the party. The camp fires will show how many
persons have slept there, the dung of the horses or dogs denotes the
time, if the fires have become cool. The tracks of the men and
animals and the remains of the meal are also means of judging. If
scraps of meat or bone seen around are untouched by wolves or
ravens they must conclude that the party has recently left.
In the summer the bending of the grass under their feet, tracks
in crossing a stream or any marshy place, and in winter, tracks in
the snow, will show to a tolerable certainty how many persons and
what time they have passed. A slight rain would determine whether
the tracks were before or since it fell. Snow would prove the same ;
the dew of the morning in summer or fall would reveal the time to
within 24 hours. The grass nibbled by the horses by its appearance
would denote whether the party had passed within a few days and
the hardness of the dung of the animals brings the time to a still
greater degree of certainty. A correct judgment is not, however,
formed by any one of the above criterions, but by a comparison of
the whole, and by following the trail, and observing also the car-
casses of the animals killed by the party, their number, state of
decay, etc. These with other smaller indications, particularly if an
arrow or moccasin be lost or thrown away, will determine the number
and nation that have passed and the time. The passage of war par-
ties is distinguished from hunting parties of their own people by
the absence of boys' ti'acks or traces of dog travailles in the former,
and by the pi'ecautions they take in their encampment.
Senses
There is an extreme acuteness in their sense of sight — that is, to
see at a glance, over a wide extent of country, sometimes dotted by
bushes, ravines, or hills, and distinguish the living objects when at
rest from others. There is a great difference in the faculty of seeing
far and what is called " picking up an object '' — that is, distinguish-
ing it from the inanimate bodies intervening. The Indians possess
528 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ANN. 46
this power in so remarkable a decree as to appear a kind of instinct.
At a distance of 12 or 16 miles they will distinguish animals from
timber, even supposing they are not in motion. If moving they will
discern between horses and buffalo, elk and horses, antelope and men,
a bear and a bull, or a wolf and a deer, etc. But the greatest mystery
is how they make out anything living to be there at such a distance,
on the instant, when they themselves are in motion and the animal at
rest. This they do when it is surrounded by a hundred other objects
as like to living creatures as it is. Once pointed out, the movements
are watched and its character thus determined. Their powers in this
respect are truly astonishing and must be acquired. They also judge
A'ery correctly of the relative distances of objects, either by the eye
or to each other. Smoke can be seen rising on the plains at a distance
of 60 miles, and they will tell from that or any lesser distance within
a few miles of the place where it rises. Their ideas of location are
fully as remarkable.
An Indian will shoot 20 or 30 arrows in different directions, and
to a distance of 100 yards or more among the tall grass, or in the
snow, where no trace of them remains, yet he will pick up the whole
without any difficulty ; whereas a white man would have some trouble
to find anj' one of the arrows. If they lose a whip, knife, or anything
in traveling they can by returning generally find it, though no road
marks their steps. Even the boys do all these things admirably.
Finding lost horses or a camp from a given direction are also every-
day occurrences, even if they have never been in the neighborhood
of the place, yet they will find their way.
Jugglery and Sorcery
These people are prone to be deceived in every way. Tricks by
jugglers, stories, natural phenomena, or anything, to them unac-
countable or uncommon is looked upon with fear. All are so, the
priests as w^l as the others. The former have the address to
tuin to account their supposed knowledge of these causes — not
that they are really any wiser than the others, but impress them with
the belief that they are, which is enough for their purposes. The
minds of most Indians are disturbed by many useless alarms, such
as dreams, omens, and jji-edictions of the priests. Writing or calcula-
tions in figures made by whites are among the wonders to which
great superstition is attached, and they can be made to believe almost
any story, however absvu-d, if read in appearance from a book.
Paintings also, even the nondescript monsters drawn by themselves,
inspire them with fear when looked upon. All this has met with
sufficient explanation elsewhere.
denig] the assiniboin 529
Strength and Endurance
Their powers in lifting weights, handling an ox or rowing a boat
can not compare to Europeans, yet they equal them in carrying
burdens and sur^^ass them in running. It would seem that they have
but little strength in their arms, but considerable in the back and
limbs. This may be owing to the manner in which they have exer-
cised in their youth. An ordinary Indian can not lift more than
125 to 1.50 pounds at most, though there are a few very strong men
who might be able to raise double that weight, yet most of them will
cari'j' a large deer on their backs, traveling at a swift pace for miles
without stopping, and this is equal to 170 to 185 pounds weight. The
mamier in which they jjut it on their back is by tjdng the legs
together, lying down with their back on the deer, slipping the legs
across the forehead, and rising up with the load. The Assiniboia
have frequently in this neighborhood and once in our company tired
down in a day or two running on foot the best horses we could pro-
duce.^^ In running they never " lose their breath " as it is called,
do not pant or respire very quickly.
They can not understand why " whites lose their wind in running "
and have no name for the idea in their language. They say their legs
sometimes fail them in several days running, but their wind never.
They are not fast, but constant runners, keeping always at the same
pace over hills or on a level, in a kind of short trot about 12 or 15
miles without stopping. They will then rest a few minutes, smoke
a pipe, and make as nnich more at the same rate, and so on, for three
or four days and nights in succession if necessary, their speed on these
occasions being about 5i/i miles an hour. In an emergency, sending
an Indian exj^ress to the fort to carry a letter for myself, he went 95
miles and returned, being 190 miles, in two nights and one day.
They can not walk as well as strong white men, and never do walk
when in haste to get forward. The muscles of their arms do not
appear to be formed for very hard work, but it may be that the na-
ture of their labors does not develop them. Upon the whole the
European would stand much more hard work in every way, but the
Indian would be his superior in active exercise, abstemiousness, and
loss of sleep. The greatest burden we have known an Indian to
carry any distance, say 3 or 4 miles, was two entire antelope, about
225 pounds.
Spirituous Liquors
No spirituous liquors have been distributed among these nations for
many years past, but should it be given them in quantity it would
^ W J McGee noted similar racing ability among the Scri Indians. See Seventeenth
Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn.
530 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ann. 46
be productive of great poverty and distress. They all drink when-
ever they can get it — men, women, and children — except the Crow
Indians, who will not taste it. The usual consequence of drinking
spirits is poverty, as they will sell or give away everything they
possess and prostitute their women and children to obtain liquor when
once intoxicated. These Indians have never had a constant supply
of spirits — that is, enough to produce diseases or nervous debility.
Their frolics were made at intervals of months apart and never lasted
more than 24 hours at a time. They are not quarrelsome in their*
families when inebriated, generally sing or cry for their dead rela-
tions; but among those who are not of kin quarrels often occur
which occasionally result in the death of one of them. It is morally
wrong and productive of great evil, in our opinion, to sell or give
ardent spirits to any Indian.
Hunting
Buffalo are the principal dei^endence of nil the prairie tribes, both
for food and clothing, and are hunted at all seasons ; in the summer
when the hair is light and short for clothing, lodges, etc., and in the
winter, when it is long and heavy, for robes. There are three ways
of hunting this animal : by surrounding, by approaching, and by the
parks, each of which we will describe. It may as well be stated that
the buffalo migrate, or take diifcrent ranges, and travel all in the
same direction in a given season. Thus in the spring they mostly
move north and northwest, in the fall east and south, in the winter
east, returning west and north toward sjDring. They keep together
in herds of from 100 or 200 to 5,000 or 6,000, and sometimes the
whole country for" five or six days travel is covered with one moving
mass of these animals. News of the buffalo approaching an Indian
camp is received several days before the animals appear, as they
only move forward when the grazing is not sufficient. Where a large
camp is stationed they usually hunt by "surround," which is as
follows :
The soldiers hold a council with the chief in the soldiers' lodge
and prohibit any individual hunting ahead of the buffalo, also send
runners daily on discovery, to observe what progress they are making
toward the camp, their numbers, etc., and when they report them
to be near enough a meeting is held in the soldiers' lodge, the time
for the hunt appointed, and notice given to the camp by the harangu-
ing of the public crier. At daybreak all the horses are caught and
saddled, and each of the horsemen is provided with a bow and a
quiver of arrows. A number who have no horees arm themselves
with guns, and at a signal from one of the soldiers the party moves
off in single file or line. Those who have the fastest horses go in
DENia]
THH ASSINIBOIN 531
front, after them the other horsemen. Then the foot hunters, and
lastly the women with their dogs and travailles. The soldiers ride
along each side the line (which is sometimes a mile and more in
length) and observe whether the line of march is preserved, and
that no one leaves singly. Were a dog to run out of the line it would
be shot with an arrow immediately.
Their march is conducted in silence, with the wind in their faces,
consequently blowing the scent away from the buffalo while they
are coming near them. The animal is not quick sighted but very
keen scented, and a man can, in passing across the wind blowing
toward them, raise a herd at the distance of 2 or 3 miles, without
their seeing him.
The party proceeds in this order, taking every advantage of con-
cealment the country affords in hills, coulees, bushes, long grass,
etc., endeavoring to get around them. As soon, however, as they
are close and see a movement among the buffalo intimating flight,
they push their horses at full speed, and riding entirely round
commence shooting the buffalo, which run in the direction of the
footmen, these in their turn shoot, and the animals are driven
back toward the horses. In this way they are kept running nearly
in a circle until vei-y tired, and the greater part are killed. Those
on horseback shoot arrows into all they can at the distance of from
2 to 6 paces, and the footmen load and fire as often as the animals
come near them.
A " surround " party of 80 to 100 persons will in this way kill
from 100 to 500 buffalo in the course of an hour. As soon as possible
the women get to work skinning and cutting up the animals. The
tongue, hide, and four best pieces are the property of the one who
killed it, and the rest belongs to those who skin it. When the men
have stopped killing and turned their horses loose to graze they
commence with their women, and the work being divided among
so many is soon gotten through with. If any disputes occur as to
the right to the hides or meat, they are settled on the spot by the
soldiers; but these disjDutes do not often occur, as they generally
all have as many hides and as much meat as they can pack home.
The meat is cut in long, thick slices, merely detaching it from the
bones, and leaving the carcass on the plains. It is packed home on
their horses and dogs. Before leaving, however, they all make a
hearty meal of raw liver, raw kidneys, raw stomach, and cow's nose,
with other parts in the same state, and the blood being thus smeared
over all their faces presents a savage appearance.
On arrival in camp if the soldiers wish the tongues, each one
throws his down at the soldiers' lodge in passing, or sends it to them.
Each also furnishes a piece of meat for that lodge, and all the old
532 TRIBES or THE UPPEE MISSOURI [eth. axn. 46
and feeble are supplied by their relatives who have been to the hunt.
The chief has no interference in all these matters. He sometimes
hunts and woi'ks the same as the others, but generally sends some
of his sons or other relations with his horses for meat. They never
use the gun on horseback or the bow on foot after game. The
former they can not load while running and the latter is not calcu-
lat-ed to shoot with certainty any distance over 10 paces.
Throwing Buffalo in a Park. — This is the most ancient mode
of hunting, and probably the only successful one prior to the intro-
duction of firearms and horses, as their bows and arrows are insuffi-
cient for killing buffalo on foot. We know of no nation now except
the Assiniboin and Cree who practice it, because all the rest are well
supplied with horses that can catch the buffalo, therefore they are
not com2)elled to resort to these means to entrap them.
Every year thousands of them are caught in this section by the
Assiniboin, and at the time we are writing there are three parks in
operation a short distance from this, all doing a good business.
When a camp of 30 to 60 lodges find themselves deficient in guns and
horses they move to a suitable i^lace to build a park (pi. 69) , and there
wait the approach of buffalo toward it. Most streams have high
bluffs on each side and a valley between. They therefore pitch their
camp in the valley opposite and near a gap of perpendicular descent
through the hills ; a liigh level plain being bej'ond the bluffs. They
cut timber and plant strong posts in the ground nearly in a circular
form and fill up the openings between with large logs, rocks, bushes,
and everything that will in any way add to its strength, inclosing
an area of nearly an acre of ground. This enclosure is run up the
sides of the hill to the gap or entrance 6', though neither it nor the
camp is visible from the place beyond. The whole is planned and
managed by the master of the park, some divining man of known
reijute, who is believed to have the power of making the buffalo
come into it by his enchantments.
On the plains beyond, and commencing where the wood mark
leaves off, are thrown up piles of earth, about 3 feet high and
large enough to conceal a man lying behind them, which are about IS
paces apart and extend in angles to the distance of a quarter to half a
mile in proportion as there are people to man them. When these ar-
rangements are completed, four fast running young men are selected
by the manager whose duty it is to scour the country every day or
two, making a circuit of about 20 miles in discovery of buffalo, and
report to headquarters. The master in the meantime commences his
magic arts as follows : A Hagstaff or pole is planted in the center of
the park, to the top of which is attached a yard or two of scarlet cloth,
some tobacco, and a cow's horn. This is a sacrifice to the AVind.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 69
^*-i-i.
A Buffalo Park or 'Surround
DENIQ] THE ASSINIBOIN 533
At the foot of the same are placed two or three buffalo Heads which
are painted red, decked out in feathers, and new kettles with scar-
let cloth and other things placed before them. These are given to
the Buffalo Spirits.
Another Head painted and decked very gaudily is jalaced in the
lodge of the master, who smokes and invokes it, at times singing the
Bull Song, which he accompanies with a rattle nearly all night, and
pro2)hesies as to their appearance of success in the morning. A
man is now chosen who is to lead the buffalo within the lines, and
there are but few among them who can do it. When the discoverers
have reported buffalo to be within 8 or 10 miles of the camp, and
the wind is favorable, the master, after great ceremonies to the
Heads, and making them other sacrifices, gives notice that a throw
must be made, sending all the camp to take their stations behind
the piles of earth, lying down; he remains in camp, keeping up a
singing, rattling, and smoking — with invocations all the time. The
l^erson who brings the buffalo motmts a horse and meets them a great
distance from camp. When within about 150 yards of the herd he
covers his body with his robe, lies along the horse's back, and imi-
tates the bleating of a buffalo calf.
The whole mass immediately moves toward him. He retreats
toward the pen, always keeping to the windward of them, and about
the same distance ahead, renewing the noise of the calf whenever
they appear to stop. They generally follow him as fast as his horse
can gallop, and in this way alone he conducts them within the lines
of the angle. Of course as soon as they are a short distance in, the
scent of one of the angles reaches them but it is now too late, they
have closed in behind. The animals now take fright and rush from
one line to another, but seeing people on both sides (who rise as the
buffalo attempt to get through) they keep straight forward. The
leader on horseback now makes his escape to one side, and the whole
herd plunges madly down the precipice, one on top of the other,
breaking their legs and necks in the fall. Into the pen they tumble,
those in front having no power to stop. They are forced on by the
pressure from behind and frightened by the yelling and tiring of
the savages. When all have passed into the pen the work of
slaughter commences, with guns and bows firing as long as any
appearance of life remains. From 300 to 600 are thus thrown in at
one time by a small camp, and two or three days are required to
skin and cut them up.
Men, women, and children now commence skinning. Each secures
as many hides as he can skin. The master of the park claims a
portion for his share, indeed all are said to belong to him, but he
does not take more than the rest. All the tongues, however, are
534 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOUEI [ETH. ANN. 46
his, and he also receives other payment for his services in presents,
besides the standing of a divining man. Plate 70 wiU perhaps
exliibit the hunt more clearly if we have not been sufficiently plain
in the description.
When there is a deficiency of people to man the angles they are
made by placing the lodges of the camp in that form, but this can
only be done when they have a dozen or two of fast horses to extend
the angle of the lodges and force the buffalo within the lines. This
is also done, but it does not succeed as well as the way described.
Great is the joy and feasting in camp after a large throw.
Approaching Buffalo. — This is done on foot with the gun by a
single man. It is indispensable he should have on a skin dress in
summer and a white blanket coat over it in winter, or a buffalo robe
coat with all the hair turned inside.
Any dark-colored dress is easily seen by them at a considerable
distance, but white or light-colored clothing does not attract their
notice. The hunter has his gun covered with skin to prevent the dirt
or snow from entering the barrel while in the act of crawling. His
accoutrements are also firmly attached to his person by a belt. He
proceeds toward the buffalo, keeping the wind as nearly in his face
as possible, sometimes being obliged to make a circuit of miles to get
the wind in the right direction. When near the animals he observes
from the top of some hill how they are stationed, which way they
travel, and the nature of the ground as regards coulees, gullies,
bushes, grass, and any objects that may hide his person from their
view and shapes his course according to the means of concealment
presented. If he finds the country too level to get them within
range of the gun he then commences crawling on his belly toward
them, pushing his gun ahead as he goes.
This is a very laborious and slow mode of progressing and often
takes one or two hours to come within shooting distance, as the
hunter only moves while the animals are eating, stopping the moment
their attention is directed toward him. In the snow it is a very cold
business, and in the summer difficult on account of the cactus, but
they are obliged to do it frequently in both seasons on these level
plains. Great precaution is needed to approach buffalo or antelope
on a level plain. The hunter covers his head with sage bushes, and
sticks the same or grass in his belt; at other times a wolf skin covers
his head and back — he lying flat, no form of the man can be per-
ceived— and the animals being accustomed to these objects do not
affright so easily. When by any of these means he has arrived within
shooting distance he fires without rising, elevating his piece by sup-
port of the elbows. After firing he remains motionless a few min-
utes during which the buffalo, after recoiling a- few paces, and seeing
nothing on the move, commence grazing. He now turns over on his
DENIQ] THE ASSINIBOIN 535
back and reloads his gun (lying in this position) by putting the butt
against his foot — and when ready will turn over on his belly and
fire again, and so on, sometimes killing six or eight without changing
his place, or with very' little movement.
As soon as he rises the herd runs off and he commences skinning.
Some hunters mimic the bleating of a calf and thus decoy the buffalo
to them, but this is a rare talent, and only practiced by a few good
performers; in hilly i^laces or where there are gullies and bushes to
hide the hunter, neither buffalo nor antelope are difficult to kill, but
on the barren and level plain it requires great exertion, time and
patience.
Another method by which great numbers of both buffalo and ante-
lope are slain is, when the snow has drifted in the gullies, forming
banks 10 to 15 feet deep. The animals are pursued on foot, with
raquettes and snowshoes. The hunter goes over the snow, but the
animals become embedded and are killed with ease. In the summer
if several animals are killed, the meat is placed in a pile covered
with the hides, and a portion of the hunter's clothing left on it, the
scent of which prevents the wolves from coming to it. Occasionally
the bladder of the animal is inflated, small pebbles put in, which
being tied to a stick and stirred by the wind, will keep off the
wolves and foxes.
But in the winter the usual way is to bury the meat in the snow,
which effectually prevents the wolves from eating it, as they have
no power of smell through a foot of snow. Meat can be left in this
way in perfect security for a month or more, but they usually
return with their dogs and take it away the next day. If the hunter
goes out on horseback he leaves his horse near the buffalo, and
after having killed in the manner stated, packs him home with the
meat and hide, but in the deep snow horses can not travel, the dogs
do not sink much in the snow and the men and women go over it on
snowshoes.
Antelope are hunted in the same way as the preceding, also some-
times decoyed by tying some portion of clothing to a pole, the
man lying down and raising and lowering the pole at intervals, or
by kicking up his heels, one after the other. They have great curi-
osity to see the strange object, and after making many circles will
come near enough to get a shot, though as soon as they make out
the man they are off. A wolf skin is decidedly the best disguise
when hunting any of the animals on foot.
It may as well be recoi-ded here that all young hunters sacrifice
the first game they kill by cutting it up and giving it to the crows,
magpies and wolves, saying to each. " I give you this that I may
always be able to kill and feed the wolves, that I may be successful
536 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ans. 46
The bull's head is often painted and bound round with scarlet
cloth, with painted feathers or sticks stuck in, and an address made
to it announcing that it is done by the hunter to prevent the animal
from goring him. Likewise the Assiniboin, wlien they undertake to
swim the Missouri, will tie to a stick some dried buffalo guts, grease,
and bladder, and stick the same in the water, say to it, "This is to
enable me to cross without accident, let no wind blow, nor pain
take me in crossing." They are not expert swimmers like the Crow
Indians, and the fear of the undertaking causes the sacrifice. In
all these things they are very particular and superstitious, asserting
that if these ceremonies are neglected some accident will certainly
happen to the person who despises these powers.
Deer Hunting. — A good deer hunter must use the rifle. Shotguns
do not shoot with certainty. This is the reason why all these Indians
are poor deer hunters. They use the northwest shotgun altogether
except a few of the Sioux, who hunt antelope and bighorn with the
rifle. The art of deer hunting may be thus divided: Finding the
deer, approaching it, shooting it, cutting it up, and carrying it home.
They are hunted in the timber by a man alone and on foot. He must
be well acquainted with the habits of the animal, where it is to be
found at different hours in the day, what it feeds upon at different
seasons, to know by the tracks if it is traveling, grazing, running,
retiring to rest, or going to water; he must be quick sighted, a good
walker, and go cautiously through the bush when near the game.
The morning and evening are the best times to hunt them, as they
are then on the edge or borders of the woods where grass is found,
or in open places in the bottoms; returning into the thick bushes
for a few hours in the middle of the day. The hunter travels fast
until he comes near the place where he judges a deer is to be found,
then proceeds very slowly and silently, looking in every direction,
always keeping the wind in his favor until the animal is seen.
He then approaches it stepping from tree to tree, bush to bush, crawl-
ing and creeping, hiding himself entirely from its view, by every
means, and making no noise. When he thinks he is within range
he rises and fires quickly and the deer falls. It is then skinned and
cut up, the meat packed in the hide, and it tied in a bundle by the
skin of the legs, in such a way as to form a collar, which is drawn
over his forehead, by lying or sitting down, and slipping it over,
then rising up with the weight between his shoulders he starts home-
ward. If more than one is wanted he hangs the first on a tree thus
cut up, and proceeds in quest of others, sometimes killing three or
four in a day, which he returns for with his horse or dogs the
next day.
DBNia] THE ASSINIBOIN 537
Whistlps made of wood like the mouthpiece of a clarinet are used
to call both deer and elk in hunting seasons, and are then a useful
decoy. They do not catch them in traps or pits.
Elk Hunting. — This is done on foot, with the gun, but by parties
of men. Elk go in droves of from 100 to 300 each and are found in
the large timbered bottoms of the Missouri and Yellowstone. There
is some ceremony required in hunting this animal. In the first place
some divining woman who is said to be an " elk dreamer " states
she has had a favorable dream for hunting them. The woman is
then stripped to the waist and also barelegged, the body and face
painted a bright yellow, and a wreath of bushes with leaves on pro-
jecting two or three feet on each side is placed on her head in imita-
tion of the horns of the elk. Thus decorated she starts at the head
of a party of 15 to 25 men. When in the vicinity of the place,
where, according to her dream, the elk are to be found, she stops
and commences her incantation song, while the others continue in
quest of the game. As soon as the herd is discovered the party
separate, and outflanking them on either side, commence firing and
running toward them, loading and firing while running, in quick
succession, when the elk become confused, scatter and turn in dif-
ferent directions, presenting at times a mark for each of the hunters.
Every shot bewilders them the more, and instead of running in
any one direction they keep turning every way until a great many
are killed.
They are then skinned, cut up, and the meat and hides packed
home on horses brought for the purpose, which having been left
behind in charge of some women and boys, are brought up during
the fixing. The skins are used for clothing and the meat, though
eaten, is not relished much by most of the Indians.
Elk are also approached singly and at those times the same pre-
cautions are used as stated under the head of deer hunting, though
they are not so shy and timid an animal as deer. '
Grizzly Beaks. — This animal is not hunted but often found when
not desired, and mostly passed by unmolested by a single Indian
when on foot, though on occasions they do kill them in this way,
which exploit ranks in bravery next to killing an enemy, but the
thickets and mauvaise terre which they inhabit makes the pursuit
too dangerous for ordinary hunters. They are more frequently killed
in their dens in winter.
The grizzly bear in the beginning of cold weather and snow seeks
some hole in the side of a hill in some solitary place, and carries
in a quantity of grass and brush to make his nest, lies all winter
apparently asleep and eats nothing, though they are said to derive
88253°— 30 35
538 TBIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [bth. ann.46
some nourishment by sucking their paws. The nest or wash is
always within a few feet of the entrance and they can easily be seen
from the outside. Generalh' a den contains two to four bears, or one
large male and two yearling cubs, or one large female and two
yearlings. Sometimes, however, they are found singly. When a den
is discovered six or eight Indians go to attack it, approaching the hole
so close as to see the foremost Ijear, when three of them fire, the others
reserving their shots. They all run off some distance and if the ani-
mal, or any others pursue them, the rest fire. If the first one has
been killed and there are others the smoke of the guns drives them
out, when they receive a volley from the hunters. If they see nothing
after waiting a sufficient time for the smoke to escape from the hole
they again approach as before and see if the animal be dead. If so,
they make a smoke within the entrance with the view of driving out
any other that may be within. hShould nothing appear they conclude
there is but one, enter, and drag him out.
Frequently two or three bears are killed in the same hole at the
same time, and at others some of the hunters get dreadfully mangled.
Bears are also run on horseback, when found on the plains, and shot
with arrows. This is the least dangerous manner of killing them.
No pits or traps are used, though we have known forked sticks
to be placed before the hole so that when they came out they were
caught by the hind part and detained a short time. When a bear
is killed he is skinned, all except the head, which is covered with
scarlet cloth, the hair smeared over with vermilion, handsome feath-
ers stuck around it, and new kettles and tobacco laid before it.
It is presented with the pipe to smoke and a long ceremony of invoca-
tion takes place, pur^Dorting that they give him this property and
pay this attention to have pity upon their wives and children and not
tear them when they are hunting after fruit and berries. They
say if this is not done the bear will certainly sooner or later devour
.4ome of them or their children.
Beavzr. — None of these Indians trap the beaver to any extent ex-
cept the Crow and Cree Indians. The steel trap is used by them, set
under the water, and a stick dipped in the musk or oilstone of the
beaver, placed behind the trap, though above the surface. The ani-
mal, smelling the bait, will come to see what it is, and in swimming
around is caught by the foot. Oils of cinnamon, cloves, and
rhodium are also used for bait by white trappers.
Wolves and Foxes. — Wolves and foxes are caught in deadfall traps
made by planting sticks in the ground with a crosspiece supporting
a heavy roof of stone laid on sticks. The whole is propped up with
a stick, and the wolf going in to eat the meat displaces the prop and
the whole weight falls upon him and breaks his back. The Cree
DENiG] THE ASSINIBOIN 539
catch them in a pit or hole dug for the purpose — covering it with
a revolving trap door with a bait of meat on each end above and
beneath. The animal in endeavoring to reach the bait is turned in
by the revolving of the door under its weight, which brings the
other bait on top. A second revolution turns up the first bait and
turns down the second wolf.
In this way they will catch as many as the pit will hold, especially
as when a few are turned in they commence fighting; and the
noise attracts others. Wolves are also sacrificed to and small presents
given them, with the view of avoiding their being bitten by them
when mad, or as the Gods of War.
The chase does not vary much at any season, excejat that in the
summer, no skins being seasonable but deer in the red, only enough
animals are killed to suffice for food, clothing, lodges, etc. From the
middle of September to the middle of March the hair and fur of
all animals become merchantable. They are then hunted for the
hide, though all prime furs are taken off in the middle of the win-
ter. Pelts are judged by the thickness of their skin and fur. In
the warm months all animals shed their hair. A little observation
enables a person to determine to a certainty in what month the
animal has been killed.
Hunting parties not decided on by council in the soldiers' lodge
are formed by any respectable hunter sending invitations to those he
wishes should accompany him.
The spoils of smaller game belong to him who killed it but they
share the meat with all who are there, and but little difficulty occurs
on this point. When but few animals are killed it is always known
who killed them, and when many are slaughtered all have enough.
Disputes arise occasionally, however, but it is not a matter of suffi-
cient importance to proceed to extreme measures, and one of the party
usually relinquishes his claim.
The morning and evening are the best hours for approaching
small game, as at those times they are found feeding, but buffalo
can be easier approached in the middle of the day when they lie
down for an hour or two. and if not asleep their range of vision is
much diminished by that position and intervening grass. Light
and shade are not of much consequence in approaching game. The
object of the hunter is to keep out of sight entirely until the moment
of firing, and when that is not possible to make use of some skin,
branches, grass, etc., to deceive the animal, move very slowly, and
keep the wind in his favor.
The manner in which animals are decoyed has been pointed out,
but is not always successful, and only resorted to by those who are
adepts in the art of mimicry, as in the rutting season. This is the
540
TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI
[ETH. ANN. 40
reason why he who leads the buffalo into the parks is supposed by
the mass to be possessed with some supernatural power which forces
the buffalo to follow him, when in fact it is nothing more than a
correct imitation of the bleating of a calf or a noise as though a calf
was being devoured by a wolf and crying for help. The buffalo
never get near enough to the man to make him out, as he is covered
with his robe, the hair turned outward, and he always keeps the wind
in his favor. It is, however, a rare talent.
The hide of the buffalo, to make a robe, is taken off in two halves,
by slitting the animal down the middle of the back and the middle
of the belly. The first process it undergoes afterwards is taking off
the portions of meat and membrane adhering to it, so that it will
present the smooth clear skin. This is done with a tool made from
the shin bone of an elk. (Fig.
33.) The lower end is cut to an
edge and small teeth made there-
The skin is hung up at one
in
corner to a pole and the meat
is dug off by hoeing down with
the instrument, which is held
firmly at the upper end. A
woman will finish this operation
on two whole skins or four
halves in one day. Next the
skin is stretched to dry. Holes
are cut through it near the edge.
In summer it is pinned to the
ground by wooden pegs, or in
winter when the ground is
frozen, stretched on a frame of
four poles tied together, and a
small fire built to drj' it. When dry the next thing to be done is
to scrape it, that is, to hoe off about one-third of the thickness of
the hide. This is done with an iron tool about 31/2 inches long,
11/2 inches wide, and %-inch thick. Formerly a flint stone was
used for this purpose, but the iron tool answering better, is now
substituted. This piece of iron being sharpened at one edge is tied
on a handle made of elk's horn (fig. 34), cut off at one of the forks,
so as to afford a projection to fasten it, being held in both hands.
The hide is laid on the ground, the woman stands upon it. and,
stooping, digs off the hide in shavings, until of the proper thickness.'
This occupies about half a day to each whole liide and is a very
fatiguing employment. Grease is then melted, sprinkled sparingly
over the skin, and it is suspended over a small fire for a few hours
FiGDBB 33. — Tool for flcsUing the hule
DENIG]
THE ASSINIBOIN
541
that the grease may penetrate; then taken down and smeared over
with the brains or livers of some animals boiled in water, being
soaked thoroughly and left all night in this state. In the morning it
is again stretched on the frame, tlie liver scraped off, clean water
thrown on and scraped off until the hide becomes white. A fire is
then made near and the skin slowly heated and rubbed with pum-
mice stone or porous bone until it is about half dry, then taken out
of the frame and drawn backward and forward round a strong cord
of sinew which is tied at each end to the lodge pole. Every few min-
utes the skin is held a short time to the fire, then rubbed, and this
operation continued until it becomes perfectly dry and soft. This is
also hard work. A good hand will rub two whole skins or four
halves in a day. The skin is now dressed. The holes made for
stretching it around the edges are cut off and it is sewed up along
the back with an awl and
sinew, which takes about
half an hour to each two
halves of the buffalo.
The robe is now fit for
sale and is packed away.
Deer and elk skins undergo
the same operations, and in
addition the hair is scraped
off with the same tool that
tlie hide is shaved with,
though they are skinned
whole and not in halves
like the buffalo hides. It
will thus be seen that at least three days are required to prepare
one buffalo robe for market, but by their division of time in attend-
ing to several skins in different stages of advancement the labor
would be about equal to two days for each buffalo skin. Twenty-
five to thirty-five robes is considered an excellent winter's work for
one woman. The average is about 18 to 20 each. Wolf, bear, fox,
rabbit, beaver, hare, ermine, lynx, otter, rat, mink, etc., are not
dressed for market, and all these are skinned, stretched and dried
by the men and boys. A wolf or fox skin is now and then dressed for
the use of a woman or hunter to wear round his head, and undergoes
the preceding operations, though the skin being small and light
not much labor is required. Robes and skins are packed up in small
bundles, the hair side out, each bundle weighing 30 or 35 pounds,
and when a sufficient number are collected for supplies, one of these
bundles is tied on each dog travaille and they go to the trading house
to dispose of them.
FiGDRE 34. — Tool for scraping hides or shaving
tbp skin
542 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [bth. ANN. 40
Instruction in Hunting. — As stated in a former place, boys com-
mence with archery as soon as they can run about after birds and
rabbits, enlarging the size of the bow to suit their strength, until
they attain the age of 16 years, when the full-sized bow is used.
About this time they are taught by their father or other relations
the use of firearms and the different modes of approaching game.
At this age they may be considered fit to engage in the active labors
of the chase on foot, but seldom run buffalo on horseback so early.
About 18, however, they can hunt in every way, though before this
age they can and do assist in supporting their parents. Even when
much younger they follow to the hunt and aid in skinning and pack-
ing home meat. They are perhaps of more service in this way when
young than at a riper age, when the pursuit of war and the posses-
sion of women occupy the greater part of their time. Women are
never known to practice ar)y part of the hunter's art when left alone.
They generally find some relative to remain with them when deserted
by their husbands, and their labor always secures them a home.
When they desert the camp on account of some quarrel they
travel alone for days, subsisting on roots, berries, or fruit, if the sea-
son affords them, shaping their course toward the fort or some other
band of their own people.
The bow and arrow is used altogether by all these tribes when
hunting buffalo on horseback and the Northwest shotgun is the only
arm employed in killing any and all game on foot. A few Sioux,
perhaps a dozen in the whole nation, use rifles in hunting antelope,
bighorn, and other small game. A warrior has if possible both gun
and bow. Ammunition is sold at the rate of 3 pounds of powder and
1 pound of balls for one buffalo robe, which is enough for a month's
hunting by any Indian. Traps, metallic instruments, arms, or any-
thing they want, also pei'sons to repair their guns, kettles, and axes
and to make tools to dress robes, etc., can be furnished them at any
time ; but they will not pay for these things. We have kept in con-
stant emialoyment, mostly for their benefit, a blacksmith, a gunsmith,
and a tinsmith at all the forts for 20 years past and are heartily tired
of the business, as no profit arises from their labor.
It is not designed hereby to produce an impression that these
labors have been performed by us from charitable motives, but there-
by to put the Indians in a position to hunt and collect skins for the
trade. Every Indian without a horse or gun, or only with his bow
and arrows is an idler; his time is a loss to us. We therefoi-e lend
him a gun and furnish him with ammunition free of charge. He
commences hunting and realizes to us from $60 to $80 in skins that
would otherwise have remained upon the backs of the animals. True
he never returns or pays for the gun, but he has it, or some other
has, and it is in our active service. As long as the buffalo are as
DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIlSr 543
numerous as they now are those tribes will have no difficulty in main-
taining themselves by the chase. Traders are too observant of their
own interests to let them suffer for the means of hunting, but should
the buffalo fail the very reverse would be the case. In that event
the trade not being of sufficient profit would be discontinued, and
the Indians thrown upon their own resources, which are extremely
deficient.
They are no deer hunters, and besides only a small portion of
their country along the rivers is stocked with deer and elk and the
greatest famine and distress imaginable would follow, as they are
entirely unacquainted with agricultural pursuits.
There appears to be an anxiety exhibited on this point in many
of the queries, viz, whether the chase is sufficient for the support
of the Indians, and whether they would not be benefited by the
introduction of agriculture. It does not admit of a doubt; neither
are any arguments required to prove this. Having witnessed their
eating their own children during a temporary absence of buffalo
in 1845-46 is enough to satisfy any person on this head. Any rail-
road or emigration of whites through their country would ruin it
at once as a buffalo country, and the misery above alluded to yvould
as surely follow as night succeeds day.
We think, however, that attention on the part of white friends is
not enough directed to pastoral pursuits instead of agricultural and
mechanical. It appears to us that the former occupation would suit
the Indian better to commence with. He would thereby gradually
emerge from his savage state into another which would lead to
agriculture in the end. The tilling necessary for the support of his
stock would be increased in proportion as he saw the advantages
arising therefrom. It would be expecting too much of the Indian
to suppose that he would suddenly change his indolent life for one
of hard and constant labor, but it seems reasonable that the raising
of horses, cattle, hogs, and sheep, for which their country is admi-
rably adapted, would be to them both interesting and profitable em-
ployment, particularly as they could unite these operations with the
chase when game came near. This state would be but the chrysalis
in the present generation, to merge into agriculture, mechanical
arts, and civilization in the next.
Another argument in favor of this is that they are accustomed to
animal food entirely, therefore grain of any kind could not replace
this; but domestic animals, fowls, eggs, etc., would — and in the mean-
time a relish would be formed for breadstuff" and vegetables, the
want of which is not now felt. The course to be pursued (that is if
any be in contemplation) by persons in high stations appears to us
to be very plain, and must be apparent to any one who makes him-
self acquainted with their real character as set forth in these pages.
544 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ann. 46
Fishing
These tribes take no fish in quantity by any means whatever.
War
The raising of a war party is always a subject of discussion in the
soldiers' lodge, not to choose the persons, but whether the time is
suitable; if men, arms, and ammunition can be spared from camp,
or if they are required for defense; if it is advisable to keep up the
war; how they are situated with regard to their enemies as to local-
ity, numbers, and general prospects of success as presented at the
time. It being determined in favor of hostilities, the partisan sol-
dier or chief who intends leading the expedition i^roceeds to fast,
sacrifice, and dream in the manner before pointed out in these pages,
and having had favorable visions makes a feast of dog in his own
lodge, and invites thereto the persons he wishes to accompany him,
opening to them the object and plan of the expedition, after the
feast has been concluded. Should he not be able to obtain a sufficient
number of recruits in this way he sends runners with tobacco to
other camps conveying an invitation to join within a given time.
War is made either to steal horses from their enemies or to take
their scalps. For the first object but few people are I'equired, as con-
cealment and avoiding battle is aimed at, and parties for this pur-
pose are comprised of from 10 to 30 men, whereas a party starting
expressly for battle often contains two, three, or four hundred war-
riors. We will endeavor to follow up the first description of parties,
supposing stealing horses to be the object, which is the most common
kind of war excursions. The partisan or captain, as has been
stated, after dreaming, sacrificing, etc., to Wakonda, the Sun, and
Thunder, makes his last offering, consisting of some scarlet cloth
and tobacco, to the Wolves, which are considered the war fetishes,
and viewed in the light of the special Gods of War. The day for
starting being appointed, all his followers are assembled the night
before, when the business is again considered, and they consent to
follow him as the leader during the time they are out, obey his in-
structions, without, however, acknowledging any right in him to
punish in case of disobedience, also reserving to themselves the priv-
ilege of leaving him at any time and under any circumstances they
think proper.
It is a voluntary action and those who will not obej^ or are dis-
satisfied leave and return home at any stage of the march, but do
not separate and remain to thwart the intentions of the others. No
liarm being done by their desertion, no punishment follows. At all
events he is obliged to be contented with these precarious terms of
enlistment. The night previous to their departure they assemble
DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 545
(say 20 men) in the soldiers' lodge, where a dance called the Crow
dance is performed by them, and the next morning they all start
together, singing the Wolf Song as they leave, their faces usually
being painted with vermilion at all times and particularly at this
time. All go on foot ; no order or file of march is taken up ; neither
is it necessary. Each one has six or eight pairs of good strong-
soled moccasins on his back. Some are armed with bows and arrows,
some with guns, and some with lances and war clubs. Battle not
being sought, a profusion of arms is not desired and might prove
cumbersome. Every man furnishes his own ammunition and war
implements.
Though guns are sometimes borrowed and ammunition begged of
their friends and relatives, yet there is no tax laid on the camp for
supplies nor any public arrangement whatever for providing arms,
etc. No i^rovisions are taken ; they hunt it on their way. The parti-
san takes his fetish Wolf Skin, which is an entire skin of that
animal dressed with the head, ears, legs, etc., complete, so that by
lying down or standing on his hands and knees and covering him-
self with the skin, drawing it over his head, he might easily be passed
as a wolf by any person within a short distance. His other charm
or fetish is also secured about his person. A good many, and some-
times the whole party, have wolf skins of the above description on
their backs.
During their march through their own country but little precau-
tion is used. They stray along at random and toward evening look
around for some game for supper, kill whatever presents itself, take
enough for the night and the next day and encamp.
They proceed in this way, if no signs of enemies appear, until en-
tirely out of their usual hunting grounds, the leader in the mean-
time consulting his dreams, smoking to his fetish wolf skin.
A bad dream, or any unpropitious omen, such as the howling of a
single wolf in a peculiar manner, breaking his pipe, letting fall
his fetish, very severe thunder and lightning, would suffice to turn
back the expedition. W^hen large parties start we find two or three
returning almost every clay from the time of leaving until the attack,
caused by dissensions, omens, or other dissatisfaction, but no dis-
grace or remarkable comments are attached to this fact, though the
excuses some of them give look very much like fear.
Having arrived at their enemy's country, the greatest possible pre-
caution and vigilance are now exercised.
According to the orders of their leader they proceed slowly, scatter
in different directions for miles around, lie about on the tops of the
hills covered with their wolf skins, or headdresses made of bunches
of wild sage, examining the country in every direction for hours
546 TKIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [ETii. ANN. 46
before they move. If nothing is seen they signal to each other the
result by imitating the howling of wolves, the barking of foxes, or
the hooting of owls, as the signals agreed upon require. Assembling
in some hollow, they compare notes, receive new directions, and pro-
ceeding a few miles, separate again and reconnoiter as before. Thej'
now shoot very seldom, and only when meat is absolutely wanted,
and the wind blows in a direction to carry the report away from their
enemies, or toward that part of the country already explored. By
observing the movements of crows and wolves, in which direction
they travel, where they stop and light, they will find out the carcass
of some animal killed by the hunters of the camp. The state of its
decay, tracks, and other signs around will determine the probable
direction of their enemies, and they steer for that point.
When advanced thus far — that is, to know they are in the vicin-
ity of a camp — the real science of their manner of warfare exhibits
itself. Night marches commence, and separating as before about
daylight they occupy the hills, lying motionless all day, watching
in every direction some signs of their enemies. They are placed so
as to be within call of each other, and the signals for different dis-
coveries being agreed upon by imitating the howling of wolves, etc.,
as has been stated, they can communicate with each other all the time
without rising to their feet. They never expose their persons to
view on a hill. If necessary to assemble they crawl down and meet
in some ravine well covered with thick bushes. They now never
shoot, make no fire, eat nothing, keep very quiet, and travel in the
night. Of course, by these measures they must soon perceive some
one belonging to the camp, and by observing his direction will find
where it is.
Having discovered the camp, the last rendezvous takes place prior
to the attempt upon the horses, and here several things are deter-
mined— a place is agreed upon where they will all assemble after
the attack, a direction for the return chosen in case of separation,
smoking, and invoking the different fetishes are performed, and
general directions given by their leader as to the manner of approach-
ing the camp.
There can be no plan of operations laid down, as they are as yet
unaware of the position of the camp, how their horses are kept,
what surrounding objects afford concealment, etc. In the night
they approach the camp in a body under cover of the hills and
bushes, and when near enough to see the horses, and judge of the
opportunities of getting to them unobserved they again separate,
and each pursues his own way of proceeding from different points,
as the nature of the ground affords. The best horses of the Crows
and Blackfeet are usually picketed near the lodge of their several
OENIG]
THE ASSINIBOIN 547
owners and the rest grazing near. Sometimes pens are made around
the lodges, the horses driven in at dark, and Cottonwood bark thrown
in for them to eat. The risk of extracting horses from the interior
of a camp is very great, as young men are moving about from lodge
to lodge all night in their various prosecutions of schemes on women ;
but the horses must be had, and the venture must be made.
Near daylight, when all the people of the camp are supposed to
be asleep, but when yet dark (and the darkest kind of nights are
chosen) each warrior creeps slowly and silently toward that portion
of horses apparently the best situated to be taken off unperceived.
Should he in this way be so fortunate as to reach them without dis-
covery he cuts the cords with which they are tied and works them
gradually into the shade or darkness, then mounting one, drives
the whole to the appointed place of rendezvous. But owing to the
many obstacles in the way of each, the probability of some one being
observed is great, and in that case the whole camp is alarmed on the
instant, each rushing toward his horses. Shots are tired and the
warriors seek safety in flight, with or without horses as it happens.
If there be snow to show their tracks the enemy pursues them the
next day, but if no trail can be found to follow they abandon it.
In either case the warriors shape their course individually toward
the appointed place of meeting, and if all are not assembled, leave
some token for those not arrived to know they have passed, and
continue their flight.
The horses are put to full speed day and night for several days
in succession until entirely out of reach of pursuit, and now begins
a series of quarrels as to the right of possession of the animals.
Some who have been disajipointed and drove none off take from
those who have. The leader takes several, combinations of two or
three to rob another are entered into, horses are killed in the quarrel,
or stolen fi-om each other, and unless a great haul has been made
very little satisfaction appears. These differences are mostly gotten
through with before reaching home and they make known their
approach by setting the prairie on fire. When arrived in the out-
skirts they shoot and sing, but do not black themselves for stealing
horses, unless they have brought a scalp also, which occasionally
happens. If any of their party have been killed they arrive utter-
ing loud lamentations.
Tlie whole camp turns out to meet them. The old women cry
over their sons, rubbing the hand down their face, a great deal of
flattery is used by some of the elderly men, shouting the name of
some one of the warriors in a loud voice, stating his bravery, great-
ness of heart, etc., until overwhelmed by glory, he presents him with
one of the horses. Great is the joy and tumult, and it fi'equently
548 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI tBTH. ANN. 48
happens before the warrior has arrived at liis own lodge, that all
his horses are given away, and he retains nothing but the glory of
the action. In this event, however, his name is sung around the
camp by the persons who have received these gifts, accompanied
with the song of thanks, and loud and prolonged praises of his
bravery and strength of heart.
War parties for battle are a long time in contemplation, fre-
quently occupying a whole winter in preparing for the campaign,
and in counseling regarding it. Usually large parties are led by
some chief of a band, and invitations ai'e sent by him to different
chiefs of other bands of the same nation and to those of another
nation with whom they are at peace.
In the beginning of the summer they all assemble with their lodges
at the place appointed, and a great deal of debate, feasting, and
private consultation takes place, with sacrifices by the chiefs and
soldiers, and also by many of the warriors to the several super-
natural powers before referred to. It appears to be the misfortune
of these large expeditions to fail in executing anything like what is
anticipated at the start. Here also, the cause of their failure appears
to be due to their insubordination. There is no one man to lead,
no one source of authority in carrying out any plan decided upon.
The nominal leader as chief is only chief of his band, and even
among these there are others who are his equals in war. Tliere
are several chiefs of bands, and also many other chiefs; every one's
advice, although asked, can not be taken, which produces dissatis-
faction. The soldiers of one band will not be commanded by those
of another, rank on every side is interfered with, old grudges renewed
by meeting with old delinquents, in short though all looks pretty fair
on starting, yet difficulties and disputes from various causes take
pls^e every day after, which results in their leaving and returning
home in detached parties.
When, however, the ranks have by these means become purged
of the most turbulent and unruly characters the others proceed in the
following order : Chiefs, warriors of note and soldiers, dressed in
deerskin shirts and leggings trimmed with ermine, horse, or scalp
hair. A war eagle feather cap is on his head, a shield of bull's hide
covers his arm, a bow and quiver of arrows is carried on his back,
a short gun stuck in his belt with pouch and horn across his shoulders
and scalping knife in its sheath, the powder horn and ball pouch are
carried on the middle of the back, the connecting strap reaching
across his breast and the upper parts of both arms. These are the
mounted men, and the most distinguished for their former deeds.
The footmen consist of young warriors and new recruits without
any peculiar insignia, but well armed if possible. The soldiers are
tiENia] rjHE ASSINIBOIN 549
men holding that rank in whicheTer camp they reside, and their
duty is to ride on the outside of the main body to keejj any person
from straying away and prevent any useless noise or manner of
travel.
The scouts are appointed by the leader and changed daily; their
duty being to separate and keep 5 or 6 miles ahead of the main body.
These scouts or discoverers are footmen and use the same precautions
as before stated. The main body moves slowly forward after recon-
noitering has commenced, without any order, and only passing what-
ever ground has been rendered secure by the reconnoiterers. During
the time before arriving in their enemies' country, or at least before
any signs of enemies have been perceived, they run buffalo with
horses, kill enough meat for present use and dry and pound more
to be used when hunting is not advisable. When signs of the camp
are jjei-ceived, sentinels are posted every night, who lie down around
the camj) within 200 or 300 yards of the main body, and 50 or 60
steps from each other. All the horses belonging to the expedition
are picketed within this circle and near the place where their several
owners sleep. These sentinels ai"e changed every night.
"When by means of scouts and other observations they have dis-
covered the camp it is approached in the night and the several ad-
vantageous jDOsitions which the ground affords around it are occu-
pied by different detachments of the party, who are to attack from
various quarters as nearly as possible at the same time. About day-
break a rush is made by the mounted men, shouting the war whoop
and firing into the lodges as they pass through. The attention of
the horsemen is directed toward driving oft' every horse found
in camp. These, although picketed, take fright at the noise, snap
their cords and are driven away. This I'ush only passes through
the camp, and the enemj^ being raised and armed turn out and pur-
sue and a battle now takes place near the camp. Indian fighting is
individual fighting, each one for himself, without any military order,
line, or file. Orders are given by any of the chiefs or soldiers in a
loud voice when some advantage presents itself. Both parties en-
deavor to cover their bodies by anj^ objects wdiich are in the way.
A thicket is much desired, small trees, stones, bunches of gi-ass, or
hollows made by the rain are all occupied, and those who cannot
find any shelter jump from side to side, never standing still a mo-
ment to avoid an}' certain aim for their enemy's fire.
The whole is accompanied with a terrible yelling on both sides.
When one falls on either side the war whoop is sent forth by the
party who killed and a simultaneous rush is made by the enemy to
obtain the scalp and the friends of the fallen man to rescue the body.
In these melees of small pai-ties take place the terrible savage strug-
550 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth.ann.45
gles for which they are remarkable. It is hand-to-hand fighting by
a few on each side over the body of the fallen man.-" Ivnives, lances,
and war clubs are the arms then used and frequently several fall on
each side before one party recoils. These scenes are going on over
several parts of the field at the same time. The war whoop is sounded
from either side whenever any success is visible, and when any dis-
proportionate loss takes place the flight of that party is the conse-
quence. This is the great aim of either party, as a massaci'e of the
scattei'ed fugitives then takes place. It sliould be remembered that
when the contending parties are nearly equal very little damage is
done.
The firing is at such a distance that only a random shot takes
effect, and after abusing each other and firing hundreds of shots all
day, perhaps onlj^ three or four are killed. There must be a great
superiority' of numbers and position on one side where there is any
great destruction. The greatest loss of life happens when some 200
to 400 warriors surprise a camp of 20 or 30 lodges, or when the war
party is too large to effect concealment for stealing horses, and too
small for defense. In this case when pursued by the whole camp
they are brought to a stand. If on the prairie they take up a position
on the top of some hill covered with stones with which they make a
barricade or seek a gully or cluster of bushes. Here they fight as long
as one of them is living, but being surrounded by a superior force are
all killed in the end. Three years since 52 Assiniboin who were dis-
covered in an attempt to steal horses from the Blackfeet were pur-
sued and brought to bay in a sink hole, or gully, where they were
surrounded by about 800 men of the latter nation and fired upon
until all were killed.
Their enemies, however, lost 34 men before they succeeded. A
retreat is ordered in words to that effect and the movement being
perceived is followed by all, which generally ends in downright
flight. A very common exhibition of individual bravery is, when
the parties are equally divided, and slow skirmishing going forward,
each par<:y having good positions, a single warrior rides forth near
the place where the other party is stationed, and riding slowly within
reach of their fire along their front, sings his war song and calls
out his name, presenting a mark for the whole of his enemies to fire
at. Either he or his horse is generally killed, or if he escapes he is
considered a brave man ever afterwards. In either case he is fol-
lowed by one of the opposite side in the same manner, and in this way
often three or four are killed. They eat no root supposed to have the
power of deadening pain or inspiring courage.
^' Suuh fierce struggles over fallen heroes recall similar combats engaged in by tbe
stalwart figures in Homer's Iliad.
DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 551
The divining men are consulted as to the nature of their dreams
before they set out, and on the march, but not in regard to their
operations in battle.
Battles are planned as soon as they can determine the position of
the enemy, which plans are changed accordmg to circumstances
afterwards, but the fighting is done at random, each loading and
firing when he chooses, and using any measures of concealment of his
person.
No general orders are conveyed or aids employed, although when-
ever a cluster of men occupy a position some soldier or chief being-
there gives orders to the others, individually or collectively, as the
danger is apparent. The chiefs and soldiers retreating would be a
signal for all to run. The leader gives advice occasionally as to dis-
lodging the enemy, etc.. but ail his orders partake of the nature of
requests. They rally often during a retreat if the party be large, and
keep up a running fight for 10 or 15 miles.
A favorite device to decoy enemies is to send but few to make an
attack on their camp and drive off the horses. The camp, following,
are led to where the main body lies in ambush.
The war whoop is the signal of advance and also of encouragement
during the fight. It is also a, cry of joy when any of the enemy
fall, and at all times a defiance, but never used in retreat or under
any humiliating circumstances. They speak to and abuse each other
during the fight, adding their former deeds to exasperate the enemy
and induce some one of them to step forth that he may be killed.
They never quit a masked wood and take the level plain unless their
party is greatly superior in numbers and no danger of pursuit is
apprehended ; but if they are few they remain in the wood vmtil
burnt out, which is done by setting fire to the grass on the prairie,
which in a wind will comnumicate with the undergrowth of the
woods. If this can not be done by the surrounding party the be-
sieged party defend their position until night and then make their
escape under cover of the darkness.
The Gros Ventres and Crows are the only nations who take women
and children prisoners and spare their lives, though they kill all
males able to bear arms.
All the wounded left on the field are tortured to death in every
possible wajf, mostly by' mutilation, are seldom burned, perhaps for
the reason that death would be too soon produced by that manner
of proceeding. The Assiniboin burn children prisoners.
The Crow Indians a few years since, after killing all the men
and large boys of 50 lodges of the Blackfeet, took prisoners upward
of 200 women and children. One of our gentlemen now in charge
of that nation was with the Crow camp when the battle took place,
552 TEIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ann. 46
and for two or three months afterwiirds, during which time he sought
occasions to liberate about 50 women and send tliem home to their
people. Most of these prisoners, it appears, are treated well, par-
ticularly the children, who are adopted into families who have lost
their own. Wlien a child is thus adopted it is painted and dressed
very gaily, a horse given to it to ride, and to all appearances treated
as affectionately as their own.
A grown woman, however, is not adopted. They are retained to
work, or if young and handsome are kept as one of the wives of
their owners, though not abused or made to bear any unusual hard-
ships. It is singular that when these women prisoners have re-
mained a few years with the Crow Indians they will not return to
their own people, even if liberty be given them. Indeed, after the
first few months they are not watched and have it in their power
to leave at any time, and many do during the first year of their
captivity, but after having learned to speak the language, mostly
remain, which proves that nation to be much more lenient toward
their women than the Blackfeet and others. The children prisoners
become identified with them and never desire to leave when grown.
Every male fit to bear arms is put to death by the tribes. The
Assiniboin, Blackfeet, Sioux, Cree, and Arikara also kill women
and children and sing and dance as much for their scalps as for
those of men. The horrid manner in which they put the small chil-
dren to death exceeds descriiDtion. Some are stuck through with
wooden skewers, like a rabbit, while alive, and roasted before the
fire.
There is but little subordination in all large war parties of Indians.
There appear to be jealousies on excvy side between soldiers and
chiefs or between the warriors and soldiers. No penalties being
attached to disobedience, it has no limit, and they are often in as
much danger from each other as from their enemies. Once in a
century a chief arises who can lead large parties to war, but it is
only when his success and capacity as a warrior is accompanied
by his art as a prophet and he has gained entire ascendancy over all
his people. Small parties succeed better— say fi-om 80 to 100 men.
These an ordinary chief can command tolerably well, because they
are for the most part chosen from his own band and composed of
his own relations. This kind of party always proves most successful,
as the leader only attacks when success is certain from the numbers
on each side. All Indians carry off their wounded if possible, and
the dead also if not scalped, interring the latter in some secure place
not likely to be discovered by their enemies.
As stated, no grown male prisoners are retained alive by any of
these tribes, and only two preserve the lives of the women and
DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 553
children. These, of course, are obliged to work, tliough not exactly
in the character of slaves. All the women work and these pursue
the same labors, though no doubt a greater share falls upon them
than ujwn others. No desci-iption of labor, such as carrying burdens,
drying hides, cooking, or procuring fuel, etc., is considered dis-
graceful or menial. They all do it, even the wives of the chiefs,
and the prisoners would be compelled to emj^loy their time to the
advantage of their owners; or if young and handsome would be
kept as wives, yet still be made to work as the rest. They ai'e not
beaten nor brutally treated, but forfeit their lives by an attempt
to run away. Female chastity is always violated on prisoners -* if
they are even tolerably young and good looking, and often in such
a degree as exceeds the possibility of description or belief, but we
are not aware that any superstitious opinions are connected with
the act.
Costume of a Warrior. — The ordinary costume of a mounted war-
rior of known bravery has already been described. The headdress,
however, differs in form according to the fancy and standing of the
individual. The tail feathers of the war eagle are the only mark
of rank. These are attached to scarlet cloth or otter skin in many
ways, sometimes merely encircling the head, at others extending in
a ridge along the back, reaching below the horse's belly when
mounted. The shirt and leggings are made of clean white dressed
deerskin, antelope, or bighorn skin, with black sti-ipes painted around
the arms and legs and fringed with the hair of the scalps taken
by him, occasionally also with ermine skins, or horseliair. The
horse's head and tail are adorned with the same kind of feathers,
as also his lance and shield. The latter is a jaiece of dried raw
bull's hide, very thick, round, and about 18 inches in diameter. The
feathers are sewed or tied on around near the edge, and two or three
in the center. Frequently this is painted with the figure of some
animal, either real or imaginary, and is impervious to arrows,
though a ball will perforate within the distance of 100 yards if it be
held steadily.
The manner in which it is slung on the left arm and being
bowed in the middle the ball is apt to glance off to one side and often
in this way his life is saved. Arrows will stick in but not go through,
and he can with it cover most of the vital parts, at the same time
using his arms with ease. A good many of the renowned warriors
wear necklaces made of the claws of the grizzly bear, worked or
tied on a strip of otter skin, and chiefs wear their medals if they have
any. These fine dresses are not worn on the march, but packed on
^* It appears that the violation of the chastity of female prisoners was unusual among
other tribes who were highly organized socially. It was repugnant to the Iroquois.
88253°— 30 36
554 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ann. 40
their horses in bundles, and put on when the attack is about to be
made.
The faces of most of them on starting or in battle are painted
with vermilion, the entire face being a bright red, though no orders
are given to this effect. Indians generally paint on all public oc-
casions, but no other parts of tlie body are painted at this time.
Tlie costume of those on foot does not differ from that of a hunter,
except he has both gun and bow, if possible, sometimes adding a
shield, and a bundle of moccasins on his back, which, with a blanket,
or skin capot, leggings of the same and breech flap, completes the
dress.
No gi-eat display of dress can be made on foot and is not often
seen except among the Blackfeet, when it is the same or nearly the
same as the mounted warriors. The hair of the young warriors is
dressed out and adoraed in many ways, sometimes enclosing small
portions in front with beads, shell, or wampum, wliich hangs down on
each side of the face. The Crows have small portions combed up in
front and the whole of the rest tied in a queue behind, which is spread
out and stiffened with patches of gum, spotted with white clay, and
looks like turkey feathers. The elder warriors generally tie up their
hair in a knot in front, which projects out from the forehead like a
thick short horn. During the march not much attention is paid
either to painting or ornaments, but on the eve of battle, if pos-
sible, it is done. Nothing uniform aj^pears, however, in their cos-
tume, ornaments, or hair dressing, each one suiting his fancy in
these particulars, except the acknowledged marks of warriors are
not w^orn by untried and inexperienced recruits.
The back dress, if not a continuance of the headdress, is mostly a
wolf skin thrown over his robe, the tail trailing on the ground and
the snout on his shoulder. Crow-skin ' headdresses are also worn
by young warriors, and owl feathers are worn by new beginners.
No portion of their war dress is constructed so as to emit jingling
sounds, though such are worn on other occasions. Every Indian has
either a blanket, buffalo robe, or dressed skin of some kind covering
the whole person, and these are painted with their battle scenes or
garnished with beads and porcupine quills in many ways. His robe
is his bed by night and his cloak in the day, under which in the
winter is worn a blanket capot, made with a hood to cover the head.
In the large summer war parties, portions of lodges of two to four
skins each are taken along with which they make cabins to pro-
tect themselves from the rain, but in the winter no shelter is made.
When parties are too small to admit of proceeding without fear of
night attacks from their enemies while in their country, they make
small forts every night of dry timber along some stream, or of rocks
when timber is not to be had.
dbniqI the ASSINIBOIN" 555
Weapons. — Firearms are certainl}^ much valued by warriors. In-
deed, they are the principal arms, but bows and arrows are used
fully as much by mounted men. The difficulty appears to be the
loading of the gun on horseback. If possible they carry both on
their war expeditions, also some are armed with lances, war clubs,
and battle axes. The last three instruments are used only in
melees at close quarters. Indians are often so situated in battle that
neither gun nor bow can be used, and in these emergencies the tools
last mentioned stand them in great need. Guns are therefore only
additional weapons, aiding and facilitating their mutual destruc-
tion, but have by no means been substituted altogether for the bow
and arrow. The metal arrow point is superior to the flint one for-
merly used, and more easily procured. The arrows for battle are
barbed and tied on loosely, so that an attempt to withdraw the aiTOW
invariably leaves the iron in the wound, which makes many of their
wounds dangerous that would not be so if the metal could be
extracted.
The stone war club is the most efficient weapon in battle of any
we know of. A drawing of one is shown in Plate 65. The weight
of the stone is about 5 pounds. The handle is made of elastic sinew.
and can not be broken. Any attempt to ward off the blow must
be attended with a broken arm, and if the stroke is not fended
the strongest man must fall beneath it. Tomahawk and battle axes
are not thrown at their enemies, as generally represented, but are
secured to the wrist by a strong cord, and only used at close quarters ;
as also the lance and knife. The scaljjing knife is of English manu-
facture, a logwood or Brazil wood handle, and soft steel blade about
8 inches long and l^A inches wide, sharjD on one edge, and with the
point turned like a butcher knife. These are the kinds of laiives
mostly used by all Indians for hunting and all purposes, though
Willson's butcher. Cartouche, eye dagues, and other knives can be
had. Most Indians at all times carry knives of some kfnd and scalps
are taken off with whatever knife they happen to be in possession of
at the time.
In loading the gun in battle it is first primed from the horn, then
a charge of powder put in, and a few balls being held in the mouth
of each man, one is dropped in wet on top of the powder, without
any wad between or on toj). In this way they load and fire very
quickly, four or five times in a minute, but not with a very certain
aim.
When scalps are taken without loss on their side the whole party on
their way back paint their faces a jet black with a mixture of grease
and charcoal. This is the symbol of joy, and on arrival in camp
the scalp song is raised. The whole population turns out to meet
them. Whichever person the warrior touches also blacks himself
556 TEIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [BTH. ANN. 46
and commences singing. If the party has had any one killed, the
relatives of the deceased smear their faces and clothes with white
clay, the symbol of mourning, wear old, ragged skins on their backs,
go barefooted, cut their hair, arms and legs, and cry in loud
bowlings.
In this event the camp presents a scene of mingled rejoicings and
lamentations, which are kept up for many days and nights in suc-
cession. If the loss on the part of the warriors is gi-eater than the
gain — that is, if they have lost two or three men and taken but one
scalp — no faces are blackened, no dancing is done, and the scalp song
is sung throughout the camp, at the end of which all set up a howling
cry.
It often happens that the party have all, except a few. been killed,
and should the partisan in that case have escaped he does not return
immediately to his own camp but remains in another for some time,
until the grief for the dead has in a manner passed, for should he
come home with the report of a general massacre of his party he
■would run great risk of being put to death by the relatives of the
persons who fell while under his charge.
Dancing and Amusements
Dancing must be considered as a characteristic mode of expressing
popular opinion on most, if not on all, occasions and is generally done
Avith the view of swaying the multitude, and conforming their actions
to certain measures. It is also one of their principal means of pub-
lishing and handing down to posterity the remembrance of their
gallant actions, of inspiring the j'oung with a desire for distinction,
and of awarding the praise due all brave warriors. Dances are
usually performed by the different kins, such as the Wolf-pups,
Braves, Bulls, Foxes, Mice, Comrades, Ducks, and Crows. All these
are societies, formed by different j'oung men, some of which we have
had oc':'asion to mention in a former answer, and all have for their
object combination in love or war. There is also the Soldier's Dance
in which none but these officers act, and several dances in which all
promiscuously take part, or in which the distinction of the different
clubs named is not recognized. Of this natui-e are the scalp dance,
dance in the diviners' lodge, and others got up for begging jjurposes.
Most Indians after having passed the degree of soldier and
emerged into that of chief or councillor seldom jaerform in any
dances, though they encourage it by their presence. There are but
two dances in which the women join the men, which are that in the
diviners' lodge and on the occasion of taking a scalp. There is
also another in which women alone perform, aided by a few young
men, say, five or six. The principles of all these are imbibed by the
DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 557
youths, from their being always publicly exhibited, and from their
natural talent of imitation, but they do not join in the circle until
at the age of maturity, except a few girls in the scalp dance. Each
one of these performances has some motive independent of amuse-
ment, as will perhaps appear from the different descriptions of
them which follow, and are to them often matters of deep interest
and importance.
Scalp Dance (Wah-kittai Wache). — ^When a scalp is taken it is
during the return stretched on a small hoop, and left in this manner ;
the hoop is attached to the end of a rod about 5 feet long. These
are handed by the warriors on arrival to those in camp who have
recently had some of their relatives killed by enemies and js an
intimation that revenge for the dead having been taken, their mourn-
ing must be laid aside, their faces blackened, and they to rejoice with
the others in the dance, which is always done. Moreover, this mark
of politeness on the part of the warrior to those in mourning is always
remunerated by a suitable present- — a gun, a blanket, or some other
piece of property. Often a horse is bestowed in the excitement of the
moment. The dance is then called by an old man going round the
camp singing the song and beating a drum, calling on all who feel
disjjosed to join in celebrating their triumjih by a dance, and each
one makes the necessary preparations. (PI. 71.)
Both men and women paint their faces entirely black, except the
tip end of the nose, which is not touched, dress in the gaudiest and
best style the_y can afford, and at a signal by the yelling and drum-
ming of the music assemble in the area or public square with which
most villages are furnished, being an open space in the center of the
camp, near the soldiers' lodge. In this dance the men carry no
arms of any kind. Some of them have in their hands a rattle with
which they keep time, but most of the women hold in their right
hand some weapon, such as a tomahawk, bow, pakamagan, lance, or
stick. The scalps also are held by the females. Being attached
to the rod, they are shaken up and down to the tajDs of the drums.
Wlien ready they form nearly a circle. Old men with drums come
first, next all the rest of the male dancers, and afterwards the women,
the whole ring standing so close as to press a little against each
other, and the scalp rods, and other things held in the hand, are
extended out a little in front.
The scalp song is now struck up by the music, and joined in by
the whole circle, the women singing only in the second part of the
tune. In this song the name of the warrior who has killed the
enemy is introduced, with a few words alluding to the circumstances,
though without any violation of the tune or time. The part of the
tune at which the women commence is when the names or words are
558 TKIBES OF THE ■UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ann. 46
suiifr. The rest consists in a loud chant by all the ring. After
swinging to and fro a moment they all move round in a circle by
short side steps, lifting their feet together and keeping the exact
time with the drums, and after describing one or two circles by these
movements the song concludes with a general shout from the men,
the scalp is forcibly shaken, and some warrior stepping forth from
the ring recounts in a loud voice either his share in the present glory
or some of his former brave deeds. This is received with a loud
shout of approbation, the drums beat up, the song commences and
another round or two is performed.
Then some other makes a speech of a like nature, either in praise
of himself or of those who brought the scalps, and in this way it con-
tinues for several hours. Occasionally some old woman will take
the scalp in her teeth and shake it like a dog, or throw it on tlie
ground and trample on and abuse it as though it were a living enemj',
concluding with a short speech in praise of the warriors, and the
dance j^roceeds as before, the music going round with the dancers.
During the night, or rather all night, nothing but the same danc-
ing and song is heard. They make small fires outside the lodges and
a dozen or so of young men and women, with a drum or two, sing
and dance around each fire, with or without the scalp, and without
public speaking. Sometimes 20 or 30 of such dances are going on
in different parts of the camp at the same time, all night and nearly
all day, for weeks in succession, until they grow tired of it, or some
new excitement supersedes. Their faces are blackened all this time
and the color left to wear off but never washed off.
The opportunity is not lost by the young men during these night
dances to make love, in all the various ways that passion is suscep-
tible, and many runaway matches are concluded at these times, when
the young warriors having the advantage of the battle glory are most
likely to be successful. Portions of the scalp are also sent by runners
to the different camps, with the news of the battle. The tenor of
the song includes the names of the warriors who struck the enemy,
and if any of their names have been changed on this occasion it is
also mentioned, so that the new name by the time the dancing is con-
cluded in the different camps is thoroughly known by all the nation.
This dance is not attended with any violent gesticulation or eccentric
motions, as has been represented, but is an orderly affair, and seri-
ously performed. Unless a scalp has been brought no singing or
dancing can take place. Even if many enemies were seen to fall, yet
the enemy must be struck, which is the coup, and the hair produced,
which is the proof.
Bra'V'e's Danoe (Nappaishene). — This is performed by the group
or club of Indians bearing this title, who are tolerably numerous
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY _
FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 72
m One large crow's claw, red on one side and black on the other, being the only one that will oeca-
^L sionally stand on end, in which case 25 for it is counted besides its value of 5 when on its side.
/ Foursmall crow's claws, painted the same as the large one, which count 5 feach if the red side turns
^ up; if the black side, it counts nothing.
^^ Five plum stones burned black on one side and scraped white on the other; the black sides
turned up are valued at 4 each; the white, nothing.
O Five small round pieces of blue china, one-half inch in diameter, which count 3 each for the blue
side; the white side, nothing.
/7) Five vest buttons, the eyes filed olT; the eye side turned up counts 2 each; the smooth side, nothing.
Q Five heads of brass tacks, the concave side turning up counts 1 each; the convex side, nothing.
^ ^ \ FIRST THROW
■ "^^ -^ ^ J/ V— The big claw on end, 30, and 3 red claws, 15 . — 45
^ O ^ C> O- — —V- Two burnt sides up. nothing.. 0
# O 9 O 0~ j- Three blue sides up, 3 each... __ 9
O O O O 0 y— One eye side up, nothing 0
O • • • • — -^ — Four concaves up, 1 each 4
58
SECOND THROW
C:::^^ x:::^ ^ ^ ^ —\. — Two red, none on end, nothing by claw ._ 0
0 m O ^ O X— Three burnt sides up, 4 each 12
0 # • # • j- Five blue sides up. 3 each 15
0 O 0 0 O I— Three eye sides up, 2 each 6
0 o 0 ^ -^ — Two concaves, nothing by tacks -- 0
33
/[ t=/ \ THIRD THTtOW
C:^ \
(L \ The big claw on end. 30, all the rest red, 20 50
0 0 m ^ ^ Y Five burnt sides, 4 each -- 20
Five blue sides, 3 each 15
O 0 O 0 0 — -J— Five eye sides up, 2 each 10
Five concave tacks, 1 each -- - 5
100
NoTA Bene.— This is the best throw that can be made and takes all the stakes when the game does not
exceed 100.
Cos-Soo', OR Game of the Bowl
DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 559
and composed of men from 20 to 30 yeais of age, whose organization
has aheady been alhided to in these pages. No one is admitted in
the ring but those who belong. The women, say 8 or 10, stand
behind as many drummers and join in the chant but take no part
in the dance. All sing, both dancers and musicians. The men form
in a ring completely naked.^'* Their bodies are painted in various
ways. Yellow and red stripes from head to foot is a favorite man-
ner of painting, red face and yellow body, or red face and body
striped with white. Sometimes the face is dotted with white, yel-
low, or red spots, and to their moccasins are attached skunks' or
foxes' tails. Guns, si^ears, bows, and other implements of war are
held in their hands and some have rattles with which they keep time
to the tajjs on the drums.
The step is done bj' jumping off both feet and striking them
forcibly on the ground, one a moment sooner than the other, always
keeping the exact time. No words are used in the song, and when
the round is about half finished it suddenly ceases, though the drum-
ming and dancing is continued, accompanied by a low simultaneous
grunt by all at each step. They commence the dance in the form
of a ring but do not go round. Dancing for the space of a minute
in the same position, they bend their bodies forward and press all to
the center of the circle, turning and looking in every direction with-
out any order, and when all are huddled very close, and that part of
the song arrives where the chorus is discontinued, all except the tune
on the drums, they keep it up for the space of about a minute after-
wards, when a sudden and general yell by all finishes that round,
and the form of the ring is resumed.
This is the principal occasion taken by those concerned to recoimt
their former deeds of valor or coujjs. The whole camp being specta-
tors, and the bravest of them present, also many in whose company
the acts now about to be published had been performed, makes it
indispensable that the boasts of the warriors should be confined to the
limits of truth. After one round has been danced a warrior (one
of the dancers) steps forth in the middle of the ring and speaks in
a loud voice to this effect, using his gun or lance in gesticulation :
" One or two years since, he, in company with 15 others, went upon
the Blackfeet and succeeded in bringing away 40 of their enemies'
horses " [here the drum is tapped once]. " On another occasion in a
battle with the Crow Indians six years since he struck an enemy
the first" [here follows two taps on the drum]. "At another time
he struck two enemies the second, took a gun and a tomahawk from
the dead enemies " [four taps on the drum].
^ The prepuce of the penis is drawn forward and tied with a sinew, to the end of
which, floats a war eagle feather. Others not sufficiently advanced as to merit that mark
of distinction tie the same with some grass.
560 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [bth. ann. 46
"Also that in battle he took an enemy's horse " [one tap]. " That
he fired fifteen shots" [one tap]. "Four years since, being near
the Blackfeet camp with six others in quest of horses, they were
discovered and pursued but succeeded in making their escape " [one
tap on the drum]. "Alone and on foot he, three years since [naming
the place] killed and brought to camp a full-grown grizzly bear" [one
tap on the drum]. " Behold where one of the balls of the Blackfeet
broke my arm" [one tap]. "Here an arrow pierced my thigh"
[another sound of the drum], etc., until he has run through the
catalogue of his meritorious acts, when he is honored with a general
shout of appi-obation, the music strikes up, the song commences, and
another round or two being performed, another warrior recounts his
coups in the same manner. In this way they continue until all who
wish have had an opportunity of renewing the remembrance of tlieir
past deeds, and reestablishing their importance as braves in the eyes
of their countrymen. It takes some hours to prepare for and per-
form this dance and it is only done twice or thrice a year. Although
the performers are naked, yet there is no idea of indecency ^' attached
to this fact. They are in a manner obliged to appear in this state so
that they may publicly expose and jjoint out any wound they may
have received in battle.
Wounds behind are fully as honoraljle as those before. Running
away where success is impossible is more commended than death or
defeat by remaining. The number of shots a man has fired during
the fight, if over 10, counts a coup, inasmuch as it shows he has
stood his ground long enough to fire that manj'.
Killing an enemy counts nothing unless his person is touched or
struck. The first who strikes tKe dead foe counts the best coup,
although each succeeding one counts as far as the fourth.
Scalping does not count more than striking. Taking an enemy's
gun (jr horse or bow by any means counts a coup, likewise killing a
grizzly bear alone and on foot. Scalps are very little valued by him
who takes them. They are mostly cut up in small pieces and sent to
the different cami:)s. The hair seen on the warrior's leggings is some-
times really the hair of the enemies slain by him, and at others his
own, or horsehair. In either case it is the symbol of having killed.
If he has struck even one enemy he is entitled to wear hair on his
shirt and leggings, but it is not absolutely necessary that it should be
the same hair as that which he took from his enemy's head. Any
human hair or black horsehair will answer the purpose fully as well
if he has a right to wear it.
-■" This viewing o( the nude human figure without a feeling of a sense of indecency
is confirmed by the Swiss artist, Frederick Kurz, in liis Journal, already cited in the
preface.
DENIG] THH ASSINIBOIN 561
Fox Dance (To-kah-nah Wah-che).^ — This is done by those
wlio belong to the band called Foxes, who are i;)retty numerous among
several nations. It is got up with the view of publishing their feats
as in the preceding one, and also to display themselves as a body.
Their costume consists of a deer or antelope skin, shirt, and leg-
gings painted a bright yellow, and their faces painted with yellow
stripes, besides otlier forms. A dressed fox skin being slit in the mid-
dle, the head of the man is thrust through, the skin spread out on his
shoulders, the head of which lies on his breast, and the tail hangs
down his back, the whole skin being fringed round with colored
garnishing of porcujjine quills, bells, and poli.slied buttons placed in
the eyeholes of the animal in the skin.
A headdress of foxes' teeth, bored and strung, is stretched across
the middle of the head from ear to ear, a lock of their hair is tied
in front, which j^rojects out several inches, and the rest, combed
straight down behind, to which at about the middle is attached four
war eagle feathers. Their lances are wrapped with fox skins cut
in strips, and the tails of that animal sewed on the handle every 12
inches or so. Some also carry their bows and quivers of arrows at
their side during the performance.
After having been warned of the meeting, and preparing in the
above manner, they assemble at the sound of several drums and
Avhistles at the spot appointed, being generally near the center of
the camp. Here they form in line during tlie di'uniming and sing-
ing, which is kept up by five or six men and women who are invited
for the purjDose (this music) taking their stand to one side, the
women as usual behind the drums, who sing, but take no part in the
dance.
When read}' thej' all start off at a swift pace and describe the
movement of the coiling of a snake, and when wound up in this
form, all commence jumping up and down, striking one foot imme-
diately after the other on the ground, keeping exact time, and all
singing with the music for the space of about a minute, when a
general floiirish on the drums and a shout or yell from the dancers
concludes that round, and their places in line are resumed.
Some one of them now steps forward and counts his coups in the
same manner as pointed out in the Brave Dance, which is succeeded
by another movement in dancing, which is again followed by another
speaking, and so on imtil all who wished have spoken, the drum de-
noting by taps the value and number of coups thus counted by each.
The whole concludes by a feast wiveu by one or more of the most
distinguished members of this club, during which their jjrofessions
of amity and assistance are renewed, and presents often exchanged;
the musicians also partake of the repast.
This club is composed of men from 20 to 25 or 28 years of age.
562 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ANN. 45
Duck Dance (Pakhan'tah Wah-che). — This is done by the
band who bear that name and are not so numerous as the others.
The same principles govern their proceedings, being to seek this
occasion to publish and perpetuate the memory of their past deeds
on the battle fields. The dancers are all naked except the breech-
cloth, which hangs down before and behind one or two yards.
Their bodies are painted in various ways, principally striped, ac-
cording to the fancy of the individuals. No arms are carried in the
dance, but they hold in their hand a flat striped painted stick about
2 feet long, with which they keep the time. Women are excluded
from the ring but form a portion of the music. All sing, both
dancers and drummers. The evolutions are : Commencing in a ring,
they mingle together for a few minutes and conclude with a gen-
eral shout, after which coups are counted by those who wish, or
who are able, as in the preceding. The time, step, and figure of
every dance differ, but we can not describe them so as to be under-
stood.
Bulls' Dance (Tah-tun-gah Wah-che). — The kin called Bulls
is perhaps the most numerous among them, and a good many middle-
aged men and chiefs are found in this dance who do not figure in
the others. Their headdress is the skin of a buffalo bull taken off
as low as the shoulders of that animal, and dressed with the head,
horns, hair and snout complete. Around the holes where the eyes
were and in the nostrils and mouth are sewed pieces of scarlet cloth.
The skin is then sewed up along the back of the neck. The head
of the man is thrust in this, and the rest of his body being naked
except the breechcloth and moccasins, is painted with black and
red stripes. They carry guns and powder horns in the dance, mov-
ing without any order, jumping about, snorting, and shaking their
horns at each other, and firing among their feet with powder. The
song is the Bull Song. They usually are attended by six or eight
drummers and singers, all males, who are not dressed in any
remarkable manner.
No speeches are made by the Bulls during the dance, but they seek
the occasion of other dances, such as the Braves or Soldiers to
which most of them belong, to perpetuate the remembrance of their
chivalrous deeds. This kin give a good many feasts to each other
and are said to be remarkably faithful in the observance of their
promises of mutual aid and protection.
Soldiers' Dance (Ahkitchetah Wah-che). — This body of men
having already been fully described in these pages it will, of course,
be understood that their dance must include the most important
personages in camp. They seldom perform, and only with a view
DENIO] THE ASSINIBOIKT 563
of exhibiting tlieir force as a body ; and in the presence of strangers
or visitors to count their coups or when a war party is in contem-
plation, with the intent of stimulating the ardor of the young to
follow them to battle. They must have some object to dance for, as
they are not men to expend much time merely for the sake of amuse-
ment and display; besides their characters and acts are so well
known as to need no repetition.
Their costume is as nearly as possible that of warriors equipped
for battle. From the nose up their faces are painted a bright red,
and from thence down to the neck a jet black. The dancers form
the ring on foot but are attendetl by a guard of mounted soldiers,
dressed in very gay battle array, who ride round outside the ring
all the time, striking, and keeping at a respectful distance either
man or beast that is found in the way. A select band of drummers
and female singers is chosen and placed apart, who having struck up
the song, the dance is led oif by a soldier alone, who moves out by
short steps toward the center of the circle, is soon joined by all the
rest, jumping and keeping the time, which round concludes with a
loud yell and discharge of firearms, and the one who led off the dance
counts his coups on his enemies in the manner before related. This
is also accompanied by taps on the drum denoting the number and
value of the coups and the speech, honored with a general shout of
approbation.
The warrior resumes his place, another leads off, and the same
behavior is repeated until all get through, the whole ending with a
feast of dog meat given by the chief of the soldiers in the Soldiers'
Lodge, to which the strangers, if any in the camp, are invited. This
is the most imposing and warlike dance they have, and is well cal-
culated to inspire the young with a desire for glory. Their dresses
and appointments are very gay and complete according to their rank,
their gesticulation and oratory fierce and bold.
White Crane Dance (Pai-iiun-ghe-xah Waii-che). — There is no
band of this name, but the dance is got ujd by some divining man, most
probably for some begging purj^oses. He is the principal figure, be-
ing 25ainted yellow and wearing a dressed elk-skin robe on which a
large two-headed crane is painted. The costume of the others is
whatever their fancy dictates, and, of course, they put on the gayest
attire tliey can afford. The dancers are j'oung men of any and all
kins who choose to take part, except women, who join the chorus.
The evolutions are different from any of the rest, as also the song, but
can not be described so as to be understood. The only one who
speaks during the performance is the divining man, and the tenor
of his speeches differs according to his object in introducing the
dance.
564 TEIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOUEI [bth, ann. 46
Crow Dance (Cong-ghai Wah-che). — This dance is performed
by the kin called Crows. Neck and head dresses of crow skins taken
oif the bird entire with wings and head on are worn by all, and crow
feathers adorn their lances, shields, and other war implements. For
the rest, it proceeds much in the same way as the others. These are
mostly young warriors.
Dance of the Mice Comrades or Provision Stealers (Wok-e-po
MAUN noomp-pe). — This is done by a band of young men bearing the
above name. The dance is kept up all night and during it some of
them take by stealth the provision bales from the rest of the camp
who are asleep, on which they feast all night.
The dance is performed in a large lodge, or rather several lodges
tlirown into one for the purpose. The bales or other property thus
obtained are kept until daylight, when the haranguer of the camp
publishes that those who have lost anything will go and redeem it,
and the several owners of the provision sacks present a piece of
tobacco to the dancers, who deliver them their jDroperty. By visiting
many lodges in the night a good deal of provisions, robes, etc., are
secui-ed, which often take the best part of the next day to distribute.
The dress of this club, though gay. is not remarkable in any way
except they hold in their hands the skins of stuffed mice or have
the same attached to different parts of their attire. To describe the
whole of their dances in detail with the different costumes would
occupy too much space and perhaps not be required. We think
enough has been written to present a general idea of these per-
formances and their use with the Indians.
Whip Dance (Etchap-sin-tai Wah-che). — This dance is per-
formed by as many warriors as choose to assemble with whips orna-
mented with eagle feathers and horse-skin wristbands tied to the
whips. In this the number of horses they have stolen from their
enemies at various times is boasted of.
Divining Dance (Tee-chagh-hah). — The divining dance is a
complicated religious ceremony occupying a whole day and tliat part
of it api^ropriated to dancing is done by men and women promis-
cuously, headed by some of the divining men without anj' distinction
of kin or speeches regarding their coups. Their bodies are also
scarified and pieces cut out of their shoulders.
Women's Dance (Ish-kun Wah-che). — This is a dance in which
women alone perform. They are painted in many Mays and very
gaily dressed. The men drum and sing for them and the dancers are
ranged in two parallel lines opposite, dancing forward until they
meet, and then resuming their places. Besides the foregoing, tliere
are several other dances, all of which have for their object swaying
popular feeling in some way. Very little is done by Indians in any
DENIO] THE ASSINIBOIN 565
form merely for amusement, and their dances in this respect partake
of the nature of the rest of their employments.
Games
Most of these tribes, particularly the Sioux, ar^ fond of ball play-
ing in parties. The ^^rincipal game at ball is called Tah-cap-sce-chah,
being the same denominated shinny or bandy by the whites. It is
generally got up when two different bands are camped together and
a principal person in each having made a bet of a blanket or gun,
they choose from their bands an equal number of young men, who
are always the most active they can select, the number varying from
15 to 40 on each side. Sometimes the play is headed by the chief of
each band betting, though they take no part in the game, which is
usually played by men 20 to 30 years of age. Each of the players
stakes something against an equivalent on the part of one on the
opposite side and every bet is tied together separately, which con-
sists of shirts, arrows, shells, feathers, blankets and almost every
article of trade or their own manufacture, and as fast as the bets
are taken and tied together they are laid on a pile about the center
of the playground, being given in charge of three or four elderly
men who are chosen as judges of the sport. After this has been
concluded two posts are set up about three-quarters of a mile apart
and the game consists in knocking the ball with sticks toward these
posts, they being the limit for either party in different directions.
They strip naked except the breechcloth and moccasins and paint
their bodies in every possible variety of manner. Each is furnished
with a stick about 31/2 feet long, turned up at the lower end, and they
range themselves in two lines, commencing at the middle of the
ground and extending some distance on either side. The ball is cast
in the air in the center of the course, struck by some one as soon
as it falls, and the game begins, each party endeavoring to knock
the ball to the post designated as their limit. The game is plaj'ed
three times and whichever party succeeds in winning two courses
out of the three is judged conqueror. Wlien the players are well
chosen it is often an interesting game, and some splendid specimens
of foot racing can be seen, but when one of them either intentionally
or by accident hurts another by a stroke with the play stick a general
shindy takes place, and the sticks are employed over each other's
heads, which is followed by a rush for the stakes, and a scramble.
We have seen them when this was the case arm themselves and
exchange some shots, when, a few being wounded, the camps would
separate and move away in different directions. Supposing, how-
ever, the game proceeds in its proper spirit and humor, each bet
being tied separately, the parcels are handed out to the successful
566 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. an.n. 46
party hj the judges. This game is not often played by large parties
of men, or if so it is very warmly contested and very apt to break
up in a disturbance.
We have seen it also played by both men and women joined, a
few men aiding two parties of women. This was among the Sioux,
but with the other tribes it is generally played by men only.
Another mode of playing the game is by catching the ball in a
network over a small hoop a little larger than the ball attached
to the end of a stick. They catch it in this net as it flies through
the air, and throw it from one to the other toward either goal. The
man who catches can run with the ball toward the limit until he is
overtaken by one on the other side, when he throws it as far as he
can on its way, which is continued by the others. The women play
hand and foot ball, also slide long sticks on the snow, or billiards
with flat stones on the ice. We know of no other game at ball
worth mentioning being played among them.
Foot racing is often practiced by the Mandan and Crows. The
former nation before they were so much reduced by smallpox had a
regular race course 3 miles in length, in which any and all, who
chose, could try their speed, which they did by running three times
around this space, betting very high on either side.
They still practice the amusement, but not so much as formerly.
Racing
Foot races among the Crow Indians are usually contested by two
persons at a time, a bet being taken by those concerned, and many
more by the friends and spectators on either side, consisting of
blankets, buffalo robes, or some other article of clothing. They
mostly run about 300 yards and in starting endeavor to take every
advantage of each other, a dozen starts being often made before the
race begins. These Indians also run horse races, betting one horse
against the other. The same trickery and worse is displayed in
their horse races as in their foot races, and often the loser will not
])ay. The Sioux also have foot races in which any one may join,
provided he bets, which, if they have anything to stake, they are sure
to do. The name of being a fast and long runner is highly prized
among them all; indeed, after being a warrior and hunter that of
being a good runner is next to be desired, but the principal aim in
all these amusements appears to be the winning of each other's
jjroperty. They, of course, occupy and enable them to pass agree-
ably some of the long summer days, but we never see these things
introduced without the bets or prospects of gain, and from this fact,
together with the earnestness exhibited in betting, and in the contest,
we conclude it to be no more than another mode of gambling, to
which they are all so much addicted.
denig] the assiniboin 567
Gambling
Most of their lelsiu'e time either by night or by day among all
these nations is devoted to gambling in various ways, and such is
their infatuation that it is the cause of much distress and poverty
in families. For this reason the name of being a desperate gambler
forms a great obstacle in the way of a young man getting a wife.
Many quarrels arise among them from this source, and we are well
acquainted with an Indian who a few years since killed another,
because after winning all he had he refused to put up his wife to
be played for. Every day and night in the Soldiers' Lodge not oc-
cupied b_v business matters presents gambling in various ways all
the time; also in many private lodges the song of hand gambling
and the rattle of the bowl dice can be heard. Women are as much
addicted to the practice as men, though their games are different,
and, not being in jjossession of much property, their losses, although
considerable to them, are not so distressing. The principal game
played by men is that of the Bowl or Cos-soo', which is a bowl made
of wood with a flat bottom, a foot or less in diameter, the rim turned
up about 2 inches, and highly polished inside and out. A drawing
and description of the arithmetical principles of this game is now at-
tached in this place. (PI. 72.) The manner of counting therein men-
tioned is the manner in which we learned it from the Indians, but the
value of each of the articles composing the dice can be and is changed
sometimes in default of some of them being lost and again by
agreement among the plaj'ers in order to lengthen or shorten the
game or facilitate the counting. However, the best and most ex-
perienced hands play it as it is represented. It can be played be-
tween two or four, that is, either one on each side or two against two.
The game has no limit, imless it is so agreed in the commencement,
but this is seldom done, it being usualh' understood that the players
continue until one party is completely ruined.
The bowl is held by the tips of the four fingers inside the rim
and the thumb underneath. The dice being put in, they are thrown
up a few inches by striking the bottom of the bowl on the ground,
so that each counter makes several revolutions. It is altogether a
game of chance and no advantage can be taken by anyone in mak-
ing the throws. The counters or dice never leave the bowl but are
counted as the value turns up. One person having shaken it and the
amount of his throw having been ascertained a requisite number of
small sticks are placed before him, each stick counting 1. In this
way the game is kejat, but each keeps his adversary's game, not his
own; that is, he hands him a number of sticks equal to the amount
of his throw, which are laid so that all can see them. Each tlirows
in turn unless the bjg claw stands on end, in which case the person
568 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [BTH. ANN. 46
is entitled to a successive throw. By much practice they are able to
count the number turned up at a glance and the principles of the
game being stated on the drawing, we will now describe how it is
carried on. It has been observed in these pages in reference to their
gambling that it is much fairer in its nature than the same as carried
on by the whites and this is worthy of attention, inasmuch as it
shows how the loser is propitiated so that the game may not result
in quarrel or bloodshed, as is often the case.
The game is mostly played by the soldiers and warriors, and each
must feel equal to the other in courage and resolution. It is often
kept up for two or three days and nights without any intermission,
except to eat, until one of the parties is ruined.
Example. — A plays against B; each puts up a knife, and they
throw alternately until 100 is counted by the dice; say A wins. B
now puts \\\) his shirt against the two knives, which is about equal in
value; saj' A wins again. B then stakes his powder horn and some
arrows against the whole of A's winnings. Should B now win, the
game commences again at the beginning, as A would only have lost
a Imife ; but supposing A wins. B now jjuts up his bow and quiver
of arrows against all A has won — the stakes are never withdrawn but
let lie in front of them. Say A again wins. B then stakes his
blanket and leggings, which are about equal in value to all A has
won, or if not, it is equalized b}' adding or subtracting some article.
Supposing A again to be winner, he would then be in possession of
2 knives, 1 shirt. 1 blanket, 1 powder horn, 1 bow and quiver of
arrows, and 1 pair leggings, the whole of which the Indians would
value at 8 robes. B now stakes his gun against all the above of A's
Avinnings. Now if A again wins he only retains the gun, and the
whole of the rest of the j^roperty won by A returns to B, but he is
obliged to stake it all against his gun in i^ossession of A, and play
again. If A wins the second time he retains the whole and B now
puts up his horse against all of A's winnings, including the gun.
A wins, he retains only the horse, and the gun and evei-ything
else reverts again to B, he being obliged to stake them again against
the horse in A's possession. If A wins this time, he keeps the whole ;
but if B wins, he only gets back the horse and gun, and all the rest
of the property goes to A. Supposing B again loses and continues
losing until all his personal property has passed into the hands of
A, then B, as a last resoi-t, stakes his wife and lodge against all his
property in the hands of A. If A wins he only keeps the woman;
the horse, gun, and all other property returns again to B with the
understanding, however, that he stakes it all to get back his wife.
Now if B loses he is ruined; but if A loses he gives up only the
woman and the horse, continuing the play with the rest of the
articles against the horse until one or the other is broke.
DENiG] THE ASSINIBOIN 569
At this stage of the game the excitement is very great, the spec-
tators crowd around and intense fierceness prevails, few words are
exchanged, and no remarks made by those looking on. If the loser
be completely ruined and a desperate man, it is more than likely he
will by quarrel endeavor to repossess himself of some of his prop-
erty, but they are generally well matched in this respect, though
bloody struggles are often the consequence. We have known Indians
to lose everything — horses, dogs, cooking utensils, lodge, wife, even
to his wearing apparel, and be obliged to beg an old skin from some
one to cover himself, and seek a shelter in the lodge of one of his
relations. It is, however, considered a mark of manliness to suffer
no discomposure to be perceptible on account of the loss, but in most
cases we imagine this is a restraint forced upon the loser by the
character of his adversary.
Suicide is never committed on these occasions. His vengeance
seeks some other outlet, in war expeditions, or some way to acquire
property that he may again play and retrieve his losses. There are
some who invariably lose and are poor all their lives. A man may
with honor stop playing with the loss of his gun ; he has also a second
opportunity to retire on losing his horse, and when this is so under-
stood at the commencement they do, but when a regular set-to takes
place between two soldiers, it generally ends as above described.
Ordinary gambling for small articles, such as beads, vermilion,
rings, knives, arrows, kettles, etc., is carried on by playing the game
of hand, which consists in shuffling a pebble from one hand to the
other and guessing in which hand the pebble lies. They all sit in
a ring on the ground, each with whatever stake they choose to put
up before them. Both men and women join in the game and a song
is kept up all the time by the whole with motions of the hands of
him who holds the pebble. After singing about five minutes a guess
is made by one of the parties as to which hand the pebble is in, and
both hands are opened. If the guess has been correct, the one holding
the pebble is obliged to pay all the rest an equivalent to the stake
before them; but if the hand not containing the pebble be picked
upon, all the ring forfeit their stakes to him. Either one man can
thus play against the whole or he has it in his power to pass the
pebble to the next, he betting like the others.
This is a very common game, and a great deal of property by it
daily changes hands, though seldom such large articles as guns,
liorses. or women.
The usual game which women play alone, that is, without the men,
is called chun-kan-dee' , and is performed with four sticks marked on
one side and blank on the other, as described in Plate 73. The
women all sit in a circle around the edge of some skin spread
88253°— 30 37
570 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. anx. 46
upon the ground, each with her stake before her. One then gathers
up the sticks and throws them down forcibly on the end, whicli maltes
them rebound and whirl around. When they fall, the number of
the throw is counted as herein stated. Each throws in turn against
all others, and if the whole of the marked sides, or all the fair sides
of the sticks are turned up, she is entitled to a successive throw. The
game is 40, and they count by small sticks as in the j^receding. In
fine weather many of these gambling circles can be seen outside their
lodges spending the whole day at it instead of attending to their
household affairs. Some men prohibit their wives from gambling,
but these take the advantage of their husband's absence to play.
Most of the women will gamble off everything they possess, even to
the dresses of their children, and the passion appears to be as deeply
rooted in them as in the men. They are frequently thrashed by their
husbands for their losses and occasionally have quarrels among them-
selves as to the results of the game.
Another game is played by the boys and young men which con-
sists of planting an arrow in the snow or ground and each throwing
other arrows at it until struck, and he who strikes the planted arrow
is winner of all the arrows then on the ground.
Death and Its Consequences
When a warrior dies the body is straightened and dressed in full
war dress, as for battle, the face being painted red. It is then
wrapped up in a blanket, which is again enveloped in scarlet cloth,
or his flag, if he has one ; then his bow. quiver, sword, gun, powder
horn, battle ax, war club, tomahawk, knife, and his medicine or
charm are laid alongside and the whole baled with the body in his
buffalo robe, being the one on which his coups on his enemies are
painted. The last covering is the raw hide of a buffalo, hair inside,
which incloses all, and is strapped up tightly by strong cords passed
through holes cut around the edge of the skin, the whole presenting
the form of a large oblong bale. All this is done by some old men,
often some of the divining men, though not those who attended him
while sick; and the persons who pay this attention to the corpse
know they will be well paid by the relatives of the deceased, as it
is the greatest honor one Indian can confer on another and is a
claim on the patronage of the relatives during their life. Before
enshrouding the body some one of the persons who officiate cuts off
a lock of the dead man's hair, which he retains a year. At the end
of that time the nearest relatives of the deceased buy the hair from
him at a veiy high price in horses, blankets, etc. This is another
long ceremony and should be described, but our limits do not
admit of it.
DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 571
When the body is thus dressed and prepared for interment it is
the wish of the relatives to get it out of sight as soon as possible, or
in a few hours after dissolution, but it often happens that there is
no suitable place in the vicinity for burial and they are obliged to
carry it along for several days. Most of these tribes prefer scaffold-
ing the corpse on trees, which is the most ancient method of dispos-
ing of them, arising from the want of tools to excavate, particularly
in the winter season, when the ground is frozen to the depth of 5
feet as solid as a rock, and for the reason that they wish the dead
to be placed where they can at all times feast and speak to them.
Of late years, however, they prefer their being interred by the whites
at the different trading forts if possible, but as this can only happen
to a few the others either scaffold them or inter them, when the
weather admits, on the tops of hills, covered with large stones, which
being rolled on the grave after it is filled prevent the ravages of
the wolves and foxes. In either case the clothing, arms, medal, or
other trinkets not bequeathed are deposited with the body, and as
the sanctum of the dead is never disturbed nor these articles I'e-
newed, they must present a sure criterion whereby to judge of their
state of arts and arms at the time of the interment as far as it is
possible to be determined by the nature of the materials thus de-
posited. Sujjposing they are near the timber, and the man has died
in the night, the funeral takes i^lace next day, or if he has died
during the day it is disposed of the following morning.
At the moment life becomes extinct the relatives set up a loud
howl, cut their hair and legs, and the neighbors crowd into the lodge,
each endeavoring to excel the other in the violence of their lamenta-
tions, which are kept uji without intermission from that time until
the funeral is over, by all. and during this interval the whole of the
property of the deceased, except his war horse and arms as men-
tioned, is given awaj' by the relatives to those who lament. All his
horses, skins, clothing, jDrovisions, and a good part of that of his rela-
tives (brothers, father, etc.) must pass into the hands of strangers;
even the blankets off their backs, arms, and cooking utensils are
seized and carried away by those who aid in mourning. If he has
made a will, which occasionally happens, it is sometimes carried into
effect, but usually the nearest relatives sit around the body howling,
with their heads down, and pay no attention to the general pillage
which then takes place, or if thej' do, it is only to tell each of the
mourners which of their horses or other property to take away, giv-
ing the horses to those who have aided in laying out the deacl man.
Their custom is to make themselves as poor as they can be made on
these occasions, either in propertj^ or with regard to their persons.
572 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ANN. 46
The body being placed on a horse travaille crosswise, it is conveyed
to the spot for scaffolding by leading the horse, the whole following
without any order and uttering loud howlings, both men and women.
Several men now ascend the tree and draw up the corpse with strong
cords attached to it, placing the feet as near toward the south as the
fork of the tree will admit, and elevating the head part of the bale
so that it may face in that direction, after which it is secured by the
cords being tied round the limbs of the tree many times, to prevent
the wind from blowing it down.
Wlien this is finished they recommence cutting their legs and
howling, calling on the deceased by the tie of relationship which
bound them, thus : " My brother " or " my son," adding, " remain in
peace where you are; let your spirit go to the south and not be
troubled; we will feast you; do not visit us in spirit; you are happy;
and we are miserable." These words are not distinguishable on
account of the noise, and most probably muttered; as, having wit-
nessed many of these funerals in every way, we have never heard any
other words than lamentations; but they say they do pronounce
them either mentall}' or verj' low, and that if it is neglected some
more of their relatives will die; consequently we are bound to be-
lieve they utter these and other words in an audible voice. At this
stage of affairs his war horse is led under the tree and shot, in addi-
tion to which, among the Crow Indians, a finger or two of each of
the near relatives are chopped off and the blood smeared over their
faces, left to dry there, and remain until it wears off. The deceased's
shield, lance, or other implement, too long or unwieldy to be envel-
oped with the body, are now tied at his head on the tree, and the
mourners retire. Some of the near relatives, however, often remain
all day and night, naked and barefoot, exposed to cold, snow, or rain,
for several days and nights without eating until they are completely
exhausted, and for a year or more afterwards wear nothing but an
old torn skin, which, with their bodies and faces, is smeared over with
■white claj', and present a miserable appearance.
This is the most general custom among all the tribes of which we
write of disposing of their dead, and nine-tenths of them are scaf-
folded in this way. Yet occasionally some, either by request or
desire of surviving relatives, or in the event of their dying where no
timber can be found, are interred on the top of a hill. In either case
the mourning and cei'emonies are the same. When interred, the hole
or grave is excavated to the depth of about 5 feet, and made large
enough to contain the implements befoi'e referred to, which are all
buried with the body, the grave filled up and large rocks rolled upon
it. In either way no inscription or device is made to mark the sp6t,
nor any hieroglyphics carved on trees denoting the age, name of the
DENio] THE ASSINIBOIN 573
person, or anything else. No consolation is offered to Indians at the
time of the funeral, nor for several days afterwards. Those who
wish to console must aid to mourn, but say nothing. In a few days,
however, many elderly men invite the relations to feast and console
them by the usual arguments the nature of the case dictates. The
reason why the feet are placed southward and the face turned in that
direction is that the Indian paradise is supposed to be in that quarter,
and the soul is thus given to the South Wind to be carried oft' to that
point. Very brave and formerly renowned warriors sometimes re-
quested not to be interred in any way, in which case they are placed
inside their lodge projaped up, in a sitting posture, dressed and
painted, the door of the lodge is closed tight, and the outside around
the lodge inclosed by a hedge of thick branches and dirt to prevent
the wolves from entering, and the whole is thus left on the plains.
In the course of time the lodge rots away, the wolves enter, and
the bones are scattered about or carried away by them. This is the
manner in which the Chief Wah-he-muzza, or The Iron Arrow Point,
ordered his obsequies to be performed, giving for his reason that
he wished to remain above ground in order to see and hear his
children all tlie time and to have the spot rendered remarkable by
his being there.
The death of ordinary Indians is attended with like results, though
if not warriors of note they are merely enveloped in their ordinary
clothing and blankets or skins with their implements, but no horse
is killed over their grave. When women die their favorite dogs
are killed and all their tools for scraping and dressing hides, with
their j^illow and porcupine quills, ai'e enveloped with them. If she
be the wife of a chief or man of importance she is also wrapped in
scarlet cloth, formerly in jDaintcd skins. There is as much mourn-
ing and distress observed on the death of their children, perhaps
more, than when grown. On these occasions often some one of the
parents destroy themselves, and all other Indians are very attentive
to them for several days until the most violent grief is over. Should
anyone offend the parent during this time his death would most
certainly follow, as the man, being in profound sorrow, seeks some-
thing on which to wreak his revenge, and he soon after goes to war,
to kill or be killed, either of which being immaterial to him in that
state.
The reason the implements are deposited in the grave is that they
are supposed to be necessary to his being in the world of spirits. It
is a very ancient custom, perhaps coeval with tlieir existence.
We know of no tumulus or barrow erected either in former or
later times through this country containing many bodies or possess-
ing the character of a charnel house, but are in the knowledge of
the graves of many chiefs either on scaffolds or on hills.
574 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [ETH. ANN. 46
Bodies are never interred in a sitting posture, though that manner
is sometimes observed when deposited in the lodge above ground and
the posture preserved by stakes driven in around the body with forks
on the end sujoporting the different members and equilibrium.
There are no herbs or spices placed with the corpse, neither is it
submitted to any process analogous to embalming. It is enveloped,
as before mentioned, in skins to which those who can afford it add
scarlet cloth and blankets.
Scaffolding of corpses is the general manner of disposing of them
with all the prairie tribes, and the way they are prepared has been
alluded to. They would prefer having them boxed instead of baled,
but have no tools to prepare timber, and even if they had can not
at all times procure it, which together with their lack of means to
excavate in these frozen regions were no doubt the original causes
of this mode of burial. When bodies are brought to the trading
houses for interment or scaffolding they are always boxed by the
whites, the coffin being made large enough to contain the implements
and ornaments enveloped with the corpse. This in former times
was a great honor done the Indians and highly recompensed, but
of later years is a great bore and expense.
This method of securing them can, however, only be embraced
when death takes place near the houses, and consequently happens
to few. The Mandan and Gros Ventres, being stationed at the fort
with those nations, have their dead boxed by the whites and placed
on a scaffold made of posts planted near their villages. The Arikara
prefer interring them in the ground, and all the rest of the tribes
place their dead, secured in the manner described before, in the forks
of trees, which in a year or two, as soon as the cords rot off and
the envelopes fall to pieces, are blown down, and the bones are found
scattered beneath. Carnivorous birds, such as eagles, ravens, and
magpies, often jjick at the envelope until they get at the body, but if
it is well strapped in rawhide it is generally secure from either birds
or beasts as long as it remains in the tree.
It is the custom of the Assiniboin to put up a funeral flag over
the graves of their dead, particularly children, which at this time
is composed of some such fabric as red flannel or calico tied to a pole,
but which was formerly made of feathers and light skins. This is a
very ancient custom, arising, we are told, from the necessity of
having some such object thus raised which, fluttering in the wind,
frightens away the beasts and birds of prey.
The custom of collecting and rointerring the bones is very gen-
eral at the present day among all these tribes; indeed, it is seldom
neglected if when they visit the scaffold they find the body to have
blown down and the bones exposed.
DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN" 575
The bones are picked by any one of the party, not related, in the
presence of some of the relatives of the deceased, and this time buried
in the ground, with demonstrations of gi-ief and some scarifying,
though they do not go into mourning dresses flirther than some white
clay about the face, and no j^roi^erty is confiscated by others, as in
the case of the first funeral, but those who aid are paid with some
smaller articles. On these occasions a feast is made for the dead
which, being eaten, and the spirit propitiated by prayer and invoca-
tion, the whole concludes, those concerned resuming their usual dress
and occupations.
There is no such thing as charnel houses or receptacles for the dead
in all the district of the upper Missouri, neither are there any ap-
jDearances of such things having been, each individual being buried
or scaffolded separately at the most convenient place and as soon as
possible after decease.
Incineration of bones is not practiced by any of them, neither do
their traditions mention this custom to have ever existed among
them ; they have a horror of the idea.
Their symbols of mourning have been referred to, which are cut-
ting short their hair, scarifying their legs, cutting off their fingers
(Crow Indians), wearing an old tattered robe or skin on their back,
the rest of the body being naked except the breech flap of the men,
or body dress of the women, bare legged, bare footed, the face, hair,
body, and robe smeared with white clay, often intermixed with
their blood.
When the lock of hair of the deceased has been redeemed by the
relative by high pay to him who took it, which is done in a year or
two after demise, this relic is inclosed in a small sack and carried on
the back of some of the female relatives. A piece of tobacco is
wrapped with it, which is used on several occasions, as before men-
tioned. There are periodical visits to the grave, twice or thrice a
year for the first year, and afterwards for several years whenever
they haj^pen to be in the vicinity, and on these occasions takes place
the feast to the dead, so often referred to in these pages, which is
one of their principal ceremonies. A repast is made of corn or
pounded meat mixed with gi-ease and sugar, sometimes a dog is
cooked by some medicine man, and a crowd of joeople being assembled
round the grave after lamenting the dead by howling, smoke, and
pray to the spirit, leave a portion of the feast for it, and the rest is
eaten by those who attend the ceremony. One of their prayers at
these times is recorded in a former page, together with the reason of
these observances. Fires are kindled near the grave or under the
scaffold, but do not appear to be of further use than to light the pipe
by while smoking to the dead, and are suii'ered to expire at their
leisure.
576 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. anx. 40
No gravestones or posts are planted to mark the place, or any
inscriptions or devices painted or carved by any of these tribes,
denoting the age of the deceased or any other thing.
As has been frequently stated, there are no large mounds perceived
on the upper Missouri, the vrork of Indians, as have been discovered
in some of the western States, but were it an object or custom to bury
the dead in that manner we believe there is energy and power suffi-
cient among any of these tribes to accomplish a work of the kind,
even with the rude tools they have, in a loose soil, free of rock, and
in the summer season. These mounds have most probably been na-
tional or jDublic depositories for the dead of Indians in stationary
huts; and as great superstition is attached to all funeral rites, it is
not imiarobable they were excavated in a length of time by the united
efforts of the nation. Being a work in which both women and chil-
dren could join, and which could be executed with the most primitive
tools, they no doubt worked at it in favorable seasons, stimulated to
exertion bj^ the directions and commands of the divining men. These
marks of antiquity only prove the nation to have been numerous,
stationary, and unanimous in the undertaking. The materials dis-
interred from these receptacles must show beyond doubt the state
of arts and advancement of the tribe at the time the interment was
made, supjwsing the articles thus exhibited to be of their own manu-
facture and not traded from Europeans. Bones reburied are not
accompanied with a new deposit of instruments.
Those articles first enveloped with the body, if found, are rein-
terred with it, which, having been the property of the deceased, are
valuable, but to none other. It is only when the corpses fall from
scaffolds or the bones of the dead by some means have become ex-
posed that a second burial takes place; otherwise no Indians disturb
the repose of the dead.
Orphans and the Aged
The care of orphan children and the aged devolves upon the
nearest relatives of their deceased parents, but neither the chiefs
nor any other persons not of kin pay them the least attention, unless
they are adopted into their families. The aged and infirm are
supported by their sons and other relatives until they become help-
less and a burden, and are then left in some encampment to perish.
There are no very old people without some relatives. The fact of
their being old presumes that some of their lineal descendants are
living, and it is with these they reside; but should there be no kin
whatever acknowledged they would only the sooner die, as neither
chiefs, hunters, nor any others would take the least interest in them,
much less furnish them with provisions or be troubled by packing
DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 577
them along in traveling. Should an aged person of this description
die in camp the body would be wrapped in the skins composing its
bed and stuck on a tree by some of the men, without the least symp-
tom of mourning. The life of the aged of both sexes, even with
their own children, is one of drudgery and misery, and when en-
tirely helpless they are in a manner obliged to get rid of them in
some way, as their manner of traveling and conveniences of lodging
are not adapted to the infirm.
A very near and correct view of their means and disposition war
rants the oiDinion that it is more through extreme necessity than
hardness of heart that they resort to the inhuman alternative above
mentioned. Age without power is never venerated even by sedentary
Indians, though these can and do treat the infirm better than
the roving tribes, because, being better prepared with commodious
lodges and not obliged to travel, the burden of useless and aged per-
sons is not so much felt. They are therefore tolerated for their
talents in story telling and other qualifications, exciting more their
laughter than their abuse or neglect. But it is always a hard fate.
The others will say they have had their day, their youth, and their
prime, have enjoyed much and should now die and remove the bur-
den 6f their care. They all know and expect this to be their own
fate if life be prolonged, and' hence we find the influence of chiefs,
once renowned, declining with age or debility. Their gallant acts
and services are forgotten or laughed at, later incidents of the
same nature replacing theirs in the memory of their friends; they
are neglected, ridiculed, imposed upon, and, being helpless, submit.
It does happen with some divining men that the older and uglier
they become the more they are feared for their supernatural powers,
and these, as long as they can sing and drum, are well off, because
they can always command property for their services and pay their
way for any attention or assistance, besides their supposed super-
natural jDOwers prevent any practical jokes or petty torments from
being inflicted as on ordinary aged persons.
There are but few old people of either sex. Their lives are too
laborious, precarious, and exposed to secure an advanced age.-'
Lodges
The lodges of the Sioux, Crows. Assiniboin, Cree, and Blackfeet are
made of buffalo skins, hair shaved off and dressed, then sewed to-
gether in such a manner that when placed upright on poles it pre-
sents the form of an inverted funnel. The skins are dressed, cut out,
and the lodge made up altogether by the women. When cut and
2' There is some tautolosy in trpating tlie foregoing subject of death and its incidents,
but it could not l>e helped without omitting some portions of the subject.
578 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [bth. ANN. 46
sewed and laid on the ground it is in shape nearly three-quarters of
a circle, with the two wings of skins at the small end to serve as
vanes, which are changed by moving the outside poles with the wind,
to prevent the lodge from smoking. The tent is stretched on poles
from 12 to 20 feet in length according to the size of it, each family
making one to suit the number of persons to be accommodated or
their means of transporting it; therefore their sizes vary from 6 to
23 skins each, the one being the smallest, and the other the largest
size in general use, the common or medium size being 12 skins, which
will lodge a family of eight persons with their baggage, and also
have space to entertain two or three guests. The area of a lodge of
12 skins when well pitched is a circumference of 31 feet, and the
space each grown inmate requires for bed and seat would be about 3
feet in width. People seldom stand upright in a lodge. They enter
in a stooping posture, and moving forward in this way to the seat
opposite, sit there until they leave. (Pis. 74, 75.)
When sleejDing the feet of every one is turned toward the center
of the lodge, where the fire is made, the smokei escaping at the open-
ing in the top. The material will last with some repairs about three
3'ears, not longer. They usually make new lodges every third sum-
mer and cut up their old ones for leggings and moccasins. Their
lodges are always carried along when they travel with the camp,
being packed on a horse in summer, or on a travaille in winter, in
default of horses, and when the snow is deep they keep out wind and
rain and answer all their purposes, but are cold, smoky, and confined.
Families of from 2 to 10 persons, large and small, occupy tents of
different dimensions, say, one of 6 skins for the former and one of
16 skins for the latter number. Lodges of 36 skins are sometimes
found among the Sioux, owned by chiefs or soldiers. These when
carried are taken apai't in the middle in two halves and each half
packed on a separate horse. When erected, the halves are again
joined by wooden transverse pins, the poles are dragged on the
ground, being tied together in equal-sized bundles, and slung to each
side of the horses. A tent of this size will accommodate 50 to 80
people on an occasion of feast or council, as they can sit in rows three
or four deep ; about 30 persons, however, could sleep therein with ease,
independent of the space required for baggage, provisions, and uten-
sils. The females, young and old, aid in making them, and the eldest
of them erects, removes, and arranges the locations of the interior
in the manner described in a former answer.
They are never vacated and left standing, but are needed wherever
they go to protect themselves and property from the weather. The
skins are put up when sewed together in proper form without being
smoked, as the smoke from the fire in the inside soon penetrates them
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 73
''> , \
\ l\
^
I
c^ ^
Four slicks 12 inches long, flat and rounded at the ends, about I
inch broad and one-eighth inch thick, are used. Two of them
have figures of snakes burned on one side, and two the figure
of a bear's foot burned on. All the sticks are w^hite on the
sides opposite the burned sides.
THROWS
Two painted or marked sides and two white count-. 2
\\\ the white sides turned up count 10
Three burned sides up and one white count nolhmg __ 0
Four burned sides up count 10
NOTA Bene. — Three white sides up and one burned side up counts nothing.
The Chun-kan-dee' Game
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY -SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 74
Jodc:^ tr£ctfc(
A Lodge Frame and a completed lodge
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 75
JnU/i'icr- ofc<A\ Indian Jedp^e.
'"^^"Jri
The Interior of a Ucdge and Its Surroundings
DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 579
and renders them impervious to rain. The men have nothing to do
with the construction, erection, removal, or internal arrangement of
the lodges.
The Mandan, Gros Venti-es, and Arikara live in dirt cabins made
by planting four posts in the ground, with joists on the top. From
this square descend rafters to the ground in angular and circular
shape, the interstices being filled with smaller sticks and willows;
then grass is laid on. which is covered with mud, over which is thrown
earth, and the whole beaten solid. An opening is left in the top for
the smoke and a door in the side, which is extended into a covered
passage of a few steps and will admit a man upright. These are
large and roomy huts, will accommodate 30 or 40 persons each, but
are generally occupied by one family, who frequently have their
beds and bedsteads, corn cellar, provision room, and often a horse
or two under the same roof. They are said to be damp and unhealthy.
The figures and representations of animals, etc., painted on their
skin lodges are those of monsters seen by them in their dreams;
also the hand is dipped in red paint mixed with grease and its im-
pression made in many places over the tent. This denotes the master
of the lodge to have struck an enemy. The same impression is also
made on their naked bodies in some of their dances and has the same
signification.
Canoes
Skin canoes are the only watercraft used by these tribes, and
these are only to be found among the Mandan, Gros Ventres, and
Arikara. They are made of the skins of one or two buffaloes with
the hair on, not dressed, and stretched over a basketwork of willows.
The women make, carry, and projjel them with paddles, one person
only paddling in front. A canoe of one buffalo skin will contain
four persons and cross the Missouri, but they must sit very quiet
or they will upset. The women carry these canoes on their backs
along the bank to the place where they wish to cross, and on their
return bring them to the village and turn them upside down to dry.
A canoe of this kind is made in two or three hours and will last a
year. Bark canoes are used by the Chippewa, but we are not well
enough acquainted with their construction to describe them. When
no skin can be found to make a boat war parties will cross any river
on a raft.
Mental and Ethical Advancement
There is no doubt but most of these nations are disposed to ad-
vance from the barbaric type, though as yet they have made but little
i^rogress. Indeed, when we consider their mode of life, wants, and
situation with regard to each other we can not imagine how they
580 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. anx. 40
can well be anything more than what they are. Harassed by inter-
nal wars, pinched by necessities that compel them to constant exer-
tion, discouraged by the ravages of diseases, and overwhelmed by
innumerable superstitious fears, their condition is not one calculated
to prejjare either mind or body for the arts and habits of civiliza-
tion. The whole tenor of an Indian's life, and the sum and sub-
stance of all his labors is to live, to supiDort his family, and rear
his children, and he must bring them up in such a way that they in
their turn can do the same. For this all is risked, and to this end
the whole of their occupations, even their amusements, tend. They
would be most willing to embrace any mode of life by which this
main object could be realized with less risk and toil than the one
they now jsursue, but they must first be convinced of the certainty
of success in the strange pursuit to which their formed habits must
give way before they would apply themselves.
Their jji-esent manner is certainly jDrecarious, but they would not
abandon it unless some better way to live was made manifest, not
by tales and speeches but by actual experiment. Indians (men) will
not work. Even the slight attempt at agricultural labor by the few
nations on the upper Missouri who raise corn and other vegetables
devolves solely upon the women to perforin them, and the men hunt
as the other tribes. Meat must be had, and as yet no relish has been
formed by any of them, except the Sioux, for the flesh of domestic
animals. Notwithstanding all this, we see in many things a desire
to change for the better, exhibiting itself in a general feature of im-
provement when compared with that of 2U years since. Within that
time and within our acquaintance with these people the Sioux, As-
siniboin, and other nations were much more savage than they now
are. At the period to which we allude it was almost impossible for
even the traders, much less strangers, to travel through their country
without being robbed and often killed. Horses were stolen from
whites on all occasions; every person outside the fort was liable to
be abused, imposed upon, flogged, or pillaged, and even their dealings
with each other were no better. Murders upon slight provocation,
robberies, and misdemeanors of all kinds were common among
them. Even whole bands armed against each other and skirmishes
took place whenever they met.
All these things now, if not obsolete, are very rare. Wliites move
about among most of the nations with security of life and property,
and the Indians are better clothed, provided for, armed and contented
than formerly. For these happy results so far we are indebted to the
unmitigated exertions and good counsel of a few white traders of the
old stock, some good Indian agents, the entire abolishment of the
liquor trade, and lately the humane endeavors on the part of the
Government by the treaty at Laramie in 1851.
denio] the assiniboin 581
Medicine; Drugs
Most of them are beginning to see the superiority of drugs and
treatment of the sick as exhibited to them by whites and are becom-
ing aware that their drummings and superstitions are of no avail,
but it is only a perception of truth, not as yet leading to any change ■
in their superstitions, because no person instructs them in aught
better. As it stands at present and to come to the point of this
matter, we would say a disposition to emerge from barbarism is
apparent among most of these tribes, though as yet no great advance-
ment has been made. The small improvements alluded to only show
the desire to exist, but their present organization, knowledge, and
relative positions to each other as nations do not admit of further
improvement, which must necessarily unfit them for their ordinary
pursuits and successful contention with enemies.
Food
Their provisions, cooking utensils, manner of cooking, serving the
meal and eating assimilates yearly more to that of the whites. Their
conversation, desires, and willingness to listen to counsel for their
benefit all convince of a disposition to advance toward civilization
and exchange their present mode of life for one more certain in
its resources, provided they could follow these employments secure
from the depredations of neighboring tribes yet their enemies; but
here is the difficulty, they are obliged to be always in readiness for
war, also to make excursions on their foes to replace their stolen
horses or revenge the death of their relatives.
They usually eat three times a day, moi-ning, noon, and night, if
meat is plenty, but the number of meals depends altogether on
the supply of food, as has already been stated. Clay pots and other
earthen vessels are still in use among the Mandan, Gros Ventres, and
Arikara, being of their own manufacture, though they also have
metallic cooking utensils.
The flesh of buifalo and other animals is cut in broad, thin slices
and hung up inside the lodges on transverse poles over the fire, but
high up in the lodge and in the way of the smoke, which soon pene-
trates it, and in a few daj's the meat is dried and fit to pack away.
In the summer it is dried by spreading it in the sun, being cut up
as above, which soon cures it. They employ no salt in curing any
meat.
The parts of the buffalo eaten in a raw state are the liver, kidneys,
gi-istle of the snout, eyes, brains, marrow, man\'plies, or the omasum,
testicles, feet of small calves in embryo, and glands of the calf
envelope. Meat when cooked is either boiled or roasted, princi-
582 TEIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ANN. 46
Ijally the former, and always rare in either way, not overdone.
They have no salt for seasoning, but are fond of a little in the
bouillon. In former times meat was boiled in the rawhide, in holes
in the ground smeared with mud, and heated stones dropped in, or
in pots made of clay and soft stone, but metallic cooking utensils,
' consisting of kettles of every size and description, have entirely re-
placed these. Tin cups and pans, with some frying pans, wooden
bowls, and horn spoons, are yet common.
The tongues of buffalo sent to market are salted by the traders,
who secure them from the Indians during the winter in the hunting
season, and when frozen, salting them before the spring thaw comes
on. None of these tribes preserves meat in any other way than above
mentioned, some of which when dried is pounded and mixed with
berries and marrowfat. It is then called pemmican, or in Cree
pim-e-tai'-gan. Dried meat will keep but one year if free of wet.
as afterwards the fat turns rancid and the lean tasteless.
The tail of the beaver is first turned in the blaze of a fire, the out-
side skin scraped off, then incisions are made each side lengthwise
along the bone, and it is held in boiling water for a few min-
utes to extract the blood. It is then hung up in the lodge or in the
sun and left to dry.
All inquiries regarding fish are inapplicable to these Indians, as
they take none in quantity. The few catfish that are hooked by the
Gros Ventres and Arikara are boiled in water, no salt added, and a
horrid mess of bones and fish mixed together is produced, which
no one but an Indian could eat. They eat but do not relish them.
All the hunter tribes rely greatly on the spontaneous roots and
fruits found in the country and collect, dry, and pack them away,
to be used in times of scarcity of animal food. We have known hun-
dreds of Indians to subsist for one or two months on the buds of the
wild rose boiled with the scrapings of rawhides. At all times the
different kinds of roots and berries are a great resource, are used in
their principal feasts and medicine ceremonies, are of great assist-
ance when game is not to be found, are easily packed, and contain
considerable nourishment. The following is a catalogue of those
found among all the nations of which we treat, though there are
several others whose names in English are unknown to us, and some
of these now named peculiar to the most northern latitudes.
DENiG] THE ASSINIBOIN" 583
Roots, Berries, etc., Eaten by the Indians of the Upper Missouri
English name
Assiniboin name
Method of preparation
Prairie turnip (pomme blanche)..
Service berries.-
Bull berries (grains des boeufa)...
Chokecherries . _ _
Red plums
Wild grapes _
Currants
Gooseberries
Wild rhubarb
Fungus growing on trees
Artichokes. _
Berries of the red willow
A ntelope turnips.
Wild garlic
A berry called
Acorns ^'a
Strawberries
Inner bark of oottonwood
Berries of the smoking weed
A root resembling artichoke
Buds of the wild rose
Eed haw berries
Teep-se-nah
We-pah-zoo-kah.
Taque-sba-shah
Cham-pah
Caun-tah
Chint-kah
Wecha-genus-kah
Chap-tah-ha-zah
Chan-h n-uo-ha
Chaun-no-ghai
Pung-ghai
C hau-sha-sha
Ta-to-ka-na Teep-se-nah
Ta-poo-zint-kah
Me-nun
Ou-tah-pe
Wa-zshu-sta-cha
Wah-chin-cha-ha
She-o-tak-kuh
Ske-ske-chah
We-ze-zee t-kah
Tas-paun__.
Dried and pounded.
Dried.
Do.
Pounded with seeds and dried.
Stones extracted and dried.
Not preserved; eaten ripe.
Do.
Do.
Tops eaten raw or boiled.
Not dried; found in winter.
Eaten raw or boiled; not preserved.
Eaten raw only in great need.
Boiled and dried.
Raw; not preserved.
Not dried; eaten ripe.
Roasted and dried.
Not dried.
Resorted to in time of actual famine.
Not preserved; eaten ripe.
Dried, pounded, and boiled.
Found everywhere all winter on the
stalk.
Not dried; eaten in fall and winter.
2^" Found only along White Earth River.
Animals Eaten by Indians
Bu tf al o (wo-ta-
cha J^^-
[cow.-
Antelope
Elk
Deer
Bear
Wolf
„ I red...
Foxes I
Igray-.
Porcupine
Badger
Skunk. .-^
Rabbit
Hare
Ermine
Otter
Ta-tun-gah.
Petai.
Tah-to-ka-nah.
Opori.
Tah-chah.
Wah-ghun-kseecha.
Shuiikto-ka-chali."*
Shunga shanah
To-kah-nah.
Pah-hee.
Kho-kah.
Man-gah.
Mushtinchanaii.
Mushtincha ska. ^
E-toonka sun.
Petun.
Mink
Beaver
Muskrat
Glutton
Lynx
Mouse
Ground squirrel..
Water turtle
Terrapin
Horns of elk in
the velvet.
Horse
Mule
Dog
Snake (not eaten
except by Cree).
E-koo-sa.
Chap-pah.
Sink-pai.
Me-nag-gzshe.
Ega-mo'.
Pees-pees-anah.
Tah-she-ho-tah.
Kai-ah.
Pat-kah-shah.
Tah-hai.
Shungatun-gah.
Sho-shonah.
Shunka.
=s Literally, the other kind of dog.
Birds Eaten
Ah-ah-nah.
Con-ghai.
Eh-hat-ta-ta-na.
He-hun.
Pah-hon-tah.
Man-ghah.
Crane
Pai-hun.
Raven.. . _
Pelican
Small bird of any
sort.
Eagles are not
eaten.
Mid-dai-ghah.
Magpie
Sit-kap-pe-nah.
Owl .
Duck
Goose
584 TEIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ann. 46
Glands of the neck.
Sinews.
Parts of Buffaloes Not Eaten
Bull's pizzle.
Horns, hoofs, and hair.
Every otlier part, inside and out, is eaten, even to the liide.
Sugar is made from the sap of the maple. Wild rice is gathered by
the Cree and Chippewa on Eed River and the adjacent lakes, but
not by the upper Missouri tribes. In times of great scarcity old
bones are collected by the nations of whom we write, pounded, and
the grease extracted by boiling, and eaten together with any of the
foregoing roots or berries that can be found. But these sad times
always happen when the snow is deep, the ground frozen, and they
can not be found. Then those who have not laid up a stock of some
of these roots the previous summer are driven to the necessity of
killing and eating their horses and dogs, which being exhausted and
nothing more to be found they are compelled to eat human flesh.-"
Garments; Dresses
In the materials of their clothing, as far as the cold climate will
admit, articles of European manufacture have been substituted for
their skins, but there being no fabric as yet introduced equal to or
even approaching the durability and warmth of the buffalo skin,
all hunters and travelers in the winter season must be clothed with
the latter to preserve life or prevent mutilation by frost. Still in
the summer season these are laid aside, being full of vermin and
saturated with grease and dirt, and the Indian steps proudly around
in his calico shirt, blanket, and cloth pantaloons. Their hair also,
formerly tangled and matted, has been unraveled by the use of differ-
ent kinds of combs, and the livestock, which found " a living and a
home there," has, by these instruments, been torn from their com-
fortable abode, thus rendering useless their original method of dis-
posing of these vermin, viz, extracting them with their fingers and
masticating them in turn for revenge.
Most of the clothing used by these tribes is made of skins of their
own procuring and dressing, the process of which has already met
with attention. They have different dresses for different seasons,
also various costumes for war, dancing, and other public occasions,
some of which have been described. In the summer seasons, when
comparatively idle, the clothing traded from the whites is preferred
on account of its superior texture and color, but in their usual occu-
pations, in winter, at war, in the chase, or any public ceremonies
among themselves, very few articles of dress thus obtained are seen,
if we except some blankets, undercoats, scarlet cloth, and ornaments.
=" We have only witnessed one season in 21 years where they were driven to this
necessity.
DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 585
Their own dresses of skins fancifully arranged, adorned with
feathers, beads, shells, and porcupine quills, are much more highly
prized by them than any article of dress of European manufacture
introduced by the traders.
We will now detail a few of the most common or ever_yday dresses
among them, in different seasons, male and female, estimating the
cost of each in buffalo robes at $3 each, their value in this country.
Summer and Fat.t, Deess fob Men
No. 1
A buffalo robe, tbin hair, or a dressed cowskin robe
on the back 1 robe
Dressed deer or antelope skin leggings 1 robe
Cloth breech flap and moccasins % robe
2y2 robes at $3= §7.50
No. 2
A scarlet blanket 4 robes
Beads worked in same 10 robes
Deerskin shirt and leggings fringed and garnished
with beads and porcupine quiUs 5 robes
Breech flap of scarlet cloth and moccasin 1 robe
Necklace of bear's claws 5 robes
Moccasins and handkerchief for the head 1 robe
26 robes at $3=$78.00
No. 3
White blanket 3 robes
Oalico shirt 1 robe
Neckercliief and cloth breech flap 1 robe
Cottonade pantaloons 1 robe
Muskrat cap 1 robe
Moccasins 0 robe
7 robes at $3=$21.00
No. 4
White blanket 3 robes
Blanket capot 3 robes
Skin leggings, plain antelope skin 1 robe
Breeclicloth and moccasins 14 robe
7% robes at $3=$22.50
No. 5
Scarlet or Hudson Bay blanket 4 robes
Beads worked on same 10 robes
Scarlet laced chiefs coat 6 robes
Black fur hat and three cock feathers 2 robes
Silver hatband and plate 2 robes
1 pair silver arm bands 2 robes
Scarlet cloth leggings and hawk bells 1 robe
Black silk handkerchief and cloth breech flap 1 robe
Silver gorget, ear wheels and hair pipe 2 robes
Moccasins garnished with beads V2 robe
30% robes at $3=$91.50
S8253°— 30 38
586 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOUEI [eth. ann. 40
Winter Dkess foe Men
Hunter's winter dress of the Plains
No. 7
Buffalo robe coat, hair inside 1 robe
Buffalo robe over it 1 robe
Skin cap and mittens, hair inside % robe
Blanket breech flap, robe, moccasins, belt knife, and fire
apparatus % robe
Dressed cowskin leggings |
1 pair snowshoes I '^
31/2 robes at $3=$10.50
No. 2
White blanket coat with hood 3 robes
White blanket over it 3 robes
Flannel or calico shirt 1 robe
Blanket leggings 1 robe
Soled rope moccasins 1
Blanket breech flap [ 1 robe
Skin mittens, hair inside J
9robesat$3=$27.00
No. 2 is the dress of a wood hunter, ordinary warrior in winter,
if we take away the blanket and substitute a buffalo robe; or it is
worn in traveling, and is occasionally used by hunters in the Crow
and Sioux Nations, but the Cree and Assiniboin mostly wear No. 1
winter on the plains. Other ordinary dresses are only variations
of the foregoing, adding some articles and withdrawing others, but
none of them are used when in full dress, on public occasions, among
themselves, except sometimes No. .5. All their fancy dresses for
dances, war, and feasts have their peculiar marks and distinction
in rank ; also the robes worn by chiefs, soldiers, or warriors in stated
assemblies have their battle scenes painted on them in rude draw-
ings, though intelligible to them. When merely designed to be orna-
mental the drawing consists of a representation of the sun, made
by a large brilliant circle painted in the middle. Sometimes a
calumet is pictured, and other devices, such as guns, bows, lances,
horses, etc.
The dresses of the divining men are not distinguished from those
of ordinary Indians by any marks, unless they are able and wish
to renew the remembrance of their former coups on their enemies
by wearing a robe on which they are drawn, but being generally
old they seldom make any display in dress, though wearing a cap
or piece of bearskin round the head is common with them. The
rest of their clothing in summer would answer to No. 1 and in winter
to No. 2, abstracting the blanket capot.
DENIG]
THE ASSINIBOISr
587
Women's Summer Dresses
No. 1
Dressed cowskin cotillion 1 robe
Leggings of same % robe
Dressed cow or elli-skiu robe 1 robe
Moccasins 0 robe
2M> robes at $3=$7. 50
No. 2
Colored blanket 4 robes
Blue or scarlet cloth dress 3 robes
Garnishing of beads on same 5 robes
Scarlet cloth leggings ornamented with beads 2 robes
White deerskin moccasins worked with beads 1 robe
Heavy bead earrings and necklaces 4 robes
Brass-wire wristbands and rings 1 robe
20 robes at $3 =$60. 00
No. 3. — Crow Indians
Fine white dressed elk-skin robe 1 robe
Fine white bighorn skin cotillion adorned with 300 elk
teeth 25 robes
Neck collar of large brass wire 1 robe
Fine antelope skin leggings worked with porcupine
quills 3 robes.
Brass wire wristbands and rings 1 robe.
California shell ear ornaments 3 robes.
"Very heav.v bead necklaces 3 robes.
Mocassins covered with beads 2 robes.
39robesat$3=$117.00
No. 4. — Sioux
Fine white dressed elk skin robe, painted 1 robe.
Fine white dressed antelope skin cotillion heavil.v orna-
mented with beads or shells on breast and arm 30 robes.
Leggings of same ornamented with beads 3 robes.
Bead or wire necklace 2 robes.
Garnished mocassins and brass breast plate 1 robe.
Ear bones 3 robes.
40robesat$3=$120. 00
No. 5. — Common Sioux, Assiniboin, or Crow Dress
White blanket 3 robes.
Blue cloth cotillion or green cloth 2 robes.
Scarlet cloth leggings 1 robe.
6 robes at $3=$18. 00
588 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ANN. 48
No. 6. — Winter Dress
Buffalo robe' 1 robe.
Dressed cowskin cotillion 1 robe.
Dressed cowskin leggings and shoes 1 robe.
3 robes at $3 =$9. 00
No. 7. — WiNTEK Dress — Crows
Buffalo robe much garnished with porcupine quills 4 robes.
Big Horn cotillion trimmed with scarlet and orna-
mented with porcupine quills 3 robes.
Leggings of elk skin, fringed and worked with quills 2 robes.
Wrist, ear, and neck ornaments, say 3 robes.
12 robes at ?;3=$36. 00
There are many other dresses ■norn, differing in cost according to
the ornaments or labor bestowed on them, and the foregoing are
varied with their fancy and means; some therefore would cost high
and others merely a trifle. Those of mounted warriors, for dances,
soldiers, etc., are still more valuable owing to the war eagle feathers
and other decorations. It is difficult to determine the cost and dura-
bility of each costume. The cost has been stated, but every Indian
can dress only according to his means, which, if sufficient, will adorn
his clothing with ornaments to a great extent; but if limited, he
must be contented with such materials for covering as are yielded by
the skins of the animals that furnish him with food; consequently
every shade and variety of dress is visible among them. Some por-
tions of these dresses are only worn on occasions, while others are
retained all the time, and wear out the sooner. As an ordinary rule,
Indians, both male and female, renew their clothing of European
manufacture every spring, though the portions discarded are cut up
for leggings, breech flaps, hunting caps, gun wadding, etc.
It may be said to last six months if worn while hunting, or a
year if only used at times, in traveling and while idle, as is com-
paratively the case in the summer season. A complete suit of skin
will last the whole year round, its actual cost being only the labor
of dressing, and as time in the summer is of no value to them it may
be said to cost in reality nothing if not ornamented. Blankets and
cloth are not damaged by wet but do not resist the cold. Skins
are impervious to cold and wind but are destroyed by being wet,
hence the necessity and advantage of wearing the one in summer and
the other in winter, independent of the filthy nature of skins when
long worn, and of the capability of woolens to be cleansed by wash-
ing. The dress of a mounted warrior (pi. 76). as in battle or in the
dance, would be as follows, the cost being estimated as before :
DENio] THE ASSINIBOIN 589
Mounted Warrior's Dress
Buffalo robe paintetl with battle scenes and garnisbed with porcupine
quills; best; 6 robes $18.00
Skin shirt and leggings garnished with human hair and porcupine quills,
valued at 1 horse or 10 robes 30. 00
War-eagle feather cap, largest liind ; price, 2 horses, 10 robes each 60. 00
Ner-klaee of bear's claws wrought on otter skin, 6 robes 18.00
Feathers of the war eagle on shield, lance, and horse, 10 robes 30. 00
Garnished moccasins, 1 robe 3. (W
Shell ear ornaments, 4 robes 12.00
Total 171.00
Another fancy clre.ss would co.st as follows :
Scarlet blanket, 4 robes, at $3 $12.00
Beads on same. 10 robes 30.00
Skin sliirt and leggings garni-slied with porcupine quills and trimmed
with ermine, 20 robes 60. 00
Bear's-claw necklace, 6 robes 18.00
Soldier's cap of magpie feathers, tipped with red and fringed with
ermine, 10 robes 30. 00
Brass-wire arm bands, 3 robes 9. 00
Eagle featliers on lance and shield, 6 robes 18. OO
Shell ear ornaments and moccasins, 4 robes 12.00
Total 189.00
Both of the above dresses are principally of their own manufac-
ture ; yet if a trader wishes to purchase them he has great difficulty
in doing so, even by paying the above prices in merchandise, of
which they always stand in need ; indeed, they seldom can be induced
to part with them on any terms unless forced to sell to supply some
reverse by loss of property which has happened to their families.
The reason is that they are scarce, difficult to replace, and also it is
the wish of the warriors to wear them during their lives on all public
occasions and to be clothed with them when they die. Two tails of
the war eagle of 12 feathers each would be worth two horses if
wrought into a cap, or something more than a horse without.
Usually the value of the tail feathers of this bird among any of the
tribes of whom we write is $2 each in merchandise in this country, or
15 feathers for a horse. ,
Ten ermine skins will also bring a horse among the Crow Indians,
and 100 elk teeth are worth as much, there being but two teeth in
each elk which are suitable, and the tail feathers of the war eagle
are the only ones used. The elk are not killed in gi'eat numbers by
any one hunter, so that much time and bargaining are required for
an individual to collect 300, the number usually wrought on a Crow
woman's dress. The eagles are scarce and difficult to catch; hence
the value of these two ornaments,
590 TEIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ann. 46
The men in their homes in their own country at night divest them-
selves of their moccasins, leggings, and blanket capot (if any),
retaining only the breech flap, and covering themselves with their
robe or blanket; but when traveling, at war, in the chase, or en-
camped on the borders of their enemy's country no portions of cloth-
ing are taken oif at night; even their arms and accouterments are
retained while sleeping. In the summer season the women lay aside
their leggings and moccasins when going to bed, reserving only the
petticoats, or cotillion, as it is called in this country, and covering
themselves with the robe, but in the winter, or in traveling, no part
of their clothing is taken off. Young unmarried and as yet un-
touched women take the precaution at night to wind around their
dress a strong cord, strapping the same tightly to their body and legs.
This is done by some of their female relatives, the cord being well
tied and wrapped around many times to prevent the consequences
of any mistakes on the part of young men as to the location of their
bed, which might happen if they entered during the night, or if they
were guests. It is considered a great credit to a young woman never
to have slept unbound as above previous to marriage. Saddles,
billets of wood, and parts of clothing taken off serve as pillows for
the men. Provision bales, wooden bowls, and baggage sacks answer
the same purpose for the women. Rawhides, saddle blankets,
apishimos,^" skins in hair, with grass and twigs beneath form the bed,
which is seldom longer than two-thirds the sleeper, and about 3 feet
wide. „
Ornaments
All Indians are excessively fond of display in ornaments. Indeed,
as may have been gathered from the preceding, the value of their
dresses depends entirely upon the nature and extent of these decora-
tions. Small round beads of all colors are used in adorning every
portion of their dress, as also agate for their ears, hair, neck, and
wrists, but these are by no means as valuable as several kinds of
shells or as their ornamenting with colored porcupine quills. A
shell, called by the traders loquois," is sought after by them more
eagerly than anything else of the kind. They are procured on the
coast of the Pacific and find their way to our tribes across the moun-
tains through tl*e different nations by traffic with each other until the
Crows and Blackfeet get them from some bands of the Snake and
Flathead Indians with whom they are at peace.
These shells are about 2 inches long, pure white, about the size of a
raven's feather at the larger end, curved, tapering, and hollow, so
as to admit of being strung or worn in the ears of the women, worked
on the breast and arms of their cotillions, also adorn the frontlets
™ This appears to be a word adopted from the Cree or Chippewa language. It means
anything to lie on, as a bed.
^ loquois appears to be a loan word.
DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 591
of young men. and are worth in this country $3 for every 10 shells.
Frequently three or four hundred are seen on some of the j'oung
Crow or Blackfoot women's dresses. The large blue or pearl Cali-
fornia shell was once very valuable and still is partially so. It is
shaped like an oyster shell and handsomely tinted with blue, green,
and golden colors in the inside. One of these used to be worth
$20, but of late years, owing to the quantity being introduced by
the traders, the price has depreciated to about half that amount.
These shells they cut in triangular pieces and wear them as ear
pendants. Silver is worn in the sliape of arm and wrist bands. Hat
bands, gorgets, brooches, ear wheels, finger rings, and ear bobs
are mostly in use among the Sioux, the upper nations preferring
shells. Other ornaments consist of elk teeth, colored porcupine
quills, and feathers of the white plover dyed. Feathers of ravens,
owls, hawks, and eagles, furs cut in strips and wrought in various
parts of their dress, besides a great variety of trinkets and paints
furnished by the traders, among which are brass rings, brass and
iron wire, beads, brass hair and breast plates, brass and silver
gorgets, wampum moons, hair pipe, St. Lawrence shells, spotted
sea shells, hawk bells, horse and sleigh bells, cock and ostrich
feathers, thimbles, gold and silver lace, etc.
Paints and Dyes
The principal paints sold them are Chinese vermilion, chrome yel-
low and verdigris. Out of all these an Indian can please himself,
and either buy such as are mentioned, or use the shells, feathers,
furs, etc., their own country and labor produces.
The native dyestuifs for coloring porcupine quills and feathers
are as follows: For yellow, they boil the article to be colored with
the moss found growing near the root of the pine or balsam fir tree.
For red, they in the same way use the stalk of a root called we-sha-
sha, the English name of which is unknown to us. They have also
some earths and ochers, which by boiling impart a dull red, violet,
and blue color, but we are unacquainted with the process and their
names in any other language except the Indian. Their native dyes,
however, with the exception of the yellow, are superseded by those
introduced by the traders, with all but the Crow Indians, who living
near and in the Rocky Mountains find several coloring herbs and
mineral substances unknown to the other tribes, which produce much
better colors than these mentioned. At the present day they all
mostly use the clippings of different colored blankets and cloth,
which by boiling with the substance to be dyed, communicates the
tint of the cloth to it in some degree. Thus rose, green, pale blue,
and violet colors are obtained. For black they boil the inner papers
in which Chinese vermilion is enveloped.
592 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [bth. ahn. 46
Tattooing
Tattooing is much practiced by all these tribes, and a great variety
of figures are thus painted, sometimes in spots on the forehead,
stripes on the cheeks and chin, rings on the arms and wrists; often
the whole of the breast as low down as the navel, with both arms, is
covered with drawings in tattoo. It is a mark of rank in the men,
distinguishing the warrior when elaborately executed, and as the
operation is one requiring the pay of one or two horses, it proves
the person's parents to have been sufficiently rich to afford that mark
of distinction imprinted on their children, whether male or female.
It is usually done on females at the age of 12 to 14 years, is only
exhibited on them in the form of a round spot in the middle of the
forehead, strijses from the corners and middle of the mouth down to
the chin, occasionally transversely over the cheek, and rings around
the wrist and upper parts of the arms. On them it is merely de-
signed as ornament. Men are tattooed entire after having struck
their first enemy, but smaller marks of this kind are also only orna-
mental. The material employed and the modus operandi are as fol-
lows : Ked willow and cedar wood are burned to charcoal, pulverized,
and mixed with a little water. This is the blue coloring matter.
From four to six porcupine quills or needles are tied together with
sinew. Th'ese are enveloped in s^alit feathers; wrapping with sinew,
until a stiff pencil about the size of a goose quill is had, with the
quills or needles projecting at the end. One of the pi'iests or divining
men is then presented with a hoi'se and requested to operate. At
the same time a feast of dried berries is prepared, and a consider-
able number of elderly men invited to drum and sing. When all
are assembled the feast is eaten with much solemnity and invocations
to the supernatural powers.
The person to be tattooed is then placed on his back, being stripped
naked, and the operator being informed of the extent of the design
to be represented, proceeds to mark an outline with the ink, which,
if correct, is punctured with the instrument above alluded to, so as
to draw blood, filling up the punctures with the coloring matter as
he goes along, by dipping the needles therein and applying them.
The drumming and singing is kept up all the time of the operation
which, with occasional stops to smoke or eat, occupies from two to
two and a half days, when the whole of the breast and both arms are
to be tattooed; and the price for the operation is generally a horse
for each day's work.
Badges of Office
There are no badges of office that we are aware of. These marks
belong to kinships and appear only in their dress in the different
DE.MG] THE ASSINIBOIN 593
dances, apart from which nothing is seen denoting official station.
Rank is known by the devices drawn on their robes; that is, to a
warrior who has struck an enemy and stolen horses is accorded the
privilege of wearing a robe adorned with a representation of these
acts; he is also entitled to make the impression of a hand dipped
in red paint on his lodge or person, to wear hair on his shirt and
leggings, and two war eagle's feathers on his head. After making
many coups he arrives at the degree of camp soldier ^- and is known
on public occasions by the addition to the above of the war-eagle cap
or bear's claw necklace, which, together with the advantage of
publishing his feats in the dances and other ceremonies, establishes
his standing among his people.
A still further progress, so as to rank with chiefs or councillors,
is not attended with uny additional display or mark of distinction;
indeed, in that event their coups are seldom boasted of, that being
rendered unnecessary from the fact of the whole nation's being aware
of the cause of his advancement, and although chiefs and councillors
generally have approiDriate dresses, as already described, they never
wear them unless on the most important occasions, such as a battle,
council with other nations, great religious assemblies, or an ap-
proaching dissolution. It is their greatest desire when arrived at
the head of the ladder of fame to receive a flag or medal from
some whites in power, which are worn or displayed on all ordinary
convocations and councils. In like manner a sword would be the
mark of a soldier in camp, but we see no other badges of office except
what have already been referred to as existing in kins, which are
laid aside as soon as the ceremonies which caused this display are
concluded.
Beard
As has before been observed, these tribes have naturally little
or no beard. What few hairs and down make their appearance on
the face and other parts of the body are extracted by small wire
tweezers of their own make. They have no method of killing or
dyeing the hair; they cultivate it, and consider to cut it a great
sacrifice. It is only clipped short or torn out by handfuls in exces-
sive grief, but is never shaved, and until modern times but seldom
combed.
Intellectual Capacitt and Character
Laying aside the advantages of education, of knowledge acquired
by conversation with superior men, and the increase of ideas gained
in travel by the European, and drawing a comparison between the
2^ This is the term explained in footnote 10, p. 436.
594 TRIBES OF THE UPPER. MISSOURI [ETH, ann. 4g
ignorant white and the savage, we feel bound to award preference
to the latter. In all their conversation, manners, govei-nment of
families, general dej^ortment, bargaining, and ordinary occupations
they exhibit a manliness, shrewdness, earnestness, and ability far
superior to the mass of illiterate Europeans. Even their supersti-
tions and religion present a connected, grand chain of thought,
having for its conclusion the existence of a Supreme Power, much
more satisfactory and sublime in the aggregate than the mixture of
bigotry, infidelity, enthusiasm, and profanity obsei'ved in the actions
and language of the lower class of Christians. An excellent oppor-
tunity offers in this country to draw a comparison between the In-
dians and the engagees of the Fur Company, and what can never
fail to strike the mind of the observer is the superior manliness and
energy of the Indian in thought, word, and action, as evinced in
their patience, contempt of death and danger, reverses of fortune, in
their affection for their children, government of their families, their
freedom from petty vexations, and useless bursts of impotent passion.
The Indian reverences his unknown God in his way. Though the
Ijrinciple be fear and the object Creation, it leads to reliance and
resignation when his own resources fail, whereas the whites spoken
of vent their displeasure for most trifling grievances and accidents in
eternal curses on the Great Disposer, the Virgin Mary, and all other
holy persons and objects they deem worthy of their execration.
These Indians are capable of pursuing a logical train of reasoning
to a just conclusion. If the subject be one with which by experience
they have become acquainted, they can argue it point by point with
any person. Even the Assiniboin, who are the most ignorant of all
these tribes, can pursue a satisfactory mode of conversation. Clear
sightedness is more observable in matters touching their own per-
sonal or national welfare, the utility and expedience of war or peace,
camp regulations, or the advantage of trade. Not many years since
the Cree and Assiniboin combined against the Hudson Bay Co. at
Red River for the purpose of forcing that powerful house into more
reasonable prices for goods and a less distressful jsolicy of trade or
to abandon the country.
The case was as follows : It was then and still is in a measure the
custom of that company to make credits to those Indians in the fall
for nearly the entire amount of their winter hunts, taking advantage
of their necessities in putting exorbitant prices on the supplies thus
advanced, so that when an Indian came to pay he found himself
with nothing left to clothe his family or meet his wants; in fact,
as poor as before, and consequently obliged to contract other debts
on the ensuing year, being in this way kept always poor, more espe-
cially so if by some accident his hunt sliould fail.
DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 595
Even those who were not indebted bought supplies at such enormous
rates as with difficulty to support themselves. In order, therefore,
to reform these proceedings they assembled in council at various
places, sent runners to all the camps in the two nations, and decided
to convene at the Hudson Bay Co.'s fort and make known to them
their determination, which was to hunt no more at such prices, or if
they did hunt, to seek some other market for their furs on the Missis-
sijjpi or Missouri. The company lieing- aware of their proceedings
and knowing the inexpedience of being forced into measures, besides
dreading the effect such a large body of discontented Indians might
have on the settlers and property, sent their half-breed runners to
the different camps on the advance toward the fort with orders to
turn them back with stories that the smallpox had appeared in the
settlement. The fear of this terrible infection disbanded the exfjedi-
tion, the Indians traveling in haste the contrary direction, which
gave the company time to alter in detail their manner of dealing with
them, apparently of their own accord. Things of this kind prove
the Indians to be caj^able of looking into their own interests, also of
acting in a body when they are concerned, in cases where rank is not
interfered with nor subordination required, while gain is the object
and public opinion unanimous.
On subjects in which their actual exi:)erience and observation are
at fault, even if supported with good arguments, they are suspicious
and incredulous. They listen, doubt, but say little. On all such
topics their minds receive a bias from their superstitions and lack
of appreciation of motive. They can not conceive of any efforts
made through motives of charity, benevolence, or pity, nor realize
any other disinterested action, even if it be for their benefit, because
all they do is in expectation of reward, and being destitute of the
above princijjles of actions are disposed to attribute interested views
to everj'one else. In reviewing such subjects with them, and support-
ing the moral principle by argument, tliey are silenced, though not
convinced; they do not grasp it, but will not contradict, for the
thing may be so. Hence their thoughtfulness and apparent apathy,
also their uninterrupted deliberations in councils and conversa-
tion, all arising from a desire to hear the subject in all its bearings,
either with the view of forming an opinion or of the propriety of
expressing it.
Regarding their temperament, it is peculiar and general. We see
none of those great differences in disposition observed among the
European races.
There appears to be a uniformity of individual feeling and action
among them. Being all the same on like occasions, it would seem a
national and natural featuie, calling forth corresponding feelings
596 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI Ieth. ann. 46
and actions with circumstances as they arise, exhibited in overwhelm-
ing demonstrations of grief or joy, in seriousness in business, cere-
monies, and worship, excessive gayety in their amusements and
lighter conversation, with earnestness in matters of personal inter-
est. They have strong powers of memory and forecast, are of a re-
flective habit, their physical propensities predominating over the
moral, in their general conduct grave, can be and are very gay on
occasions, but upon the whole are rather of a cold than a fervid
temperament. We are unable to say whether their reasoning powers
are brought out or strengthened by education, never having witnessed
its application to any of these tribes, but see no reason why they
should not be as capable of improvement in these respects as any
other race of people. Their ideas are by no means groveling, nor
is their form of government to be derided. Neither can we conscien-
tiously assign to them a lower jalace in the scale of creation; per-
haps not so low as any other race of uneducated sentient beings.
We are not well enough acquainted with the capacity' and history
of the oriental stock to say whether these assimilate in any great
degree; most likely the inference can be drawn from what has been
written in these pages.
We may state that as yet no person has appeared among them noted
for his natural or acquired powers as a real physician, though many
have risen to eminence in this department from their supposed super-
natural powers in curing the sick. Neither does their history produce
any person who has evinced ability as a linguist,^^ moralist, or in the
cultivation of any of the exact or moral sciences.
They use no studied maxims of expression in conversation, nor are
there observed any compositions partaking of the nature of laments,
unless the speeches made to departed spirits and the universal monot-
onous mourning chant " would be construed in that light. Their
ordinary talk is pretty much the same as that of other men, though
perhaps the Indians use fewer words in conversation, selecting only
those which have a direct reference to the subject. They do not
evince a quickness in repartee, even in their jokes, and all conversa-
tion, except the obscene, is carried on more deliberately and concisely
than among other races. The effect of their oratory is a great deal
enhanced by the position, bearing, and gesticulation of the speaker,
yet it is not without its merits ; simplicity, clearness, and strength of
language are its distinguishing traits. AVe have heard and under-
stood some hundreds of speeches on every subject of interest among
the Sioux, Assiniboin, and Cree Nations, and must confess we can not
" Denig seems to refer here to grammatic analyses rather than to the mere learn-
ing of languages.
"* The song for the dead contains a few words suitable to the occasion.
DEMU] THE ASSINIBOIN 597
discern the figures and tropes attributed to their oratory by fiction
writers. Metaphor is sometimes used, but not often. Their elo-
quence lies in the few words, bold assertions, and pointed questions
with which they clothe their ideas, added to fierce expression of
countenance and earnestness of gesticulation.
Everj-thing they say in a speech has a tendency to gain their ob-
ject if they have any, and Indians seldom speak otherwise. No set
forms are followed, their thoughts finding utterance a;s they arise, or
rather according to their feelings, and consequently make an impres-
sion on their auditors. The principal aims of the Indian speeches
we have heard were to gain something or to impress the mass with
the spirit of emulation, a desire for war or peace, and for the better
regulation of their national affairs. One or two addresses of this
kind have already been inserted and now follow two more, both
heard and interpreted by myself and copied fi'om our records. We
fear in reading them a woeful disappointment on the part of novel .
writers and romantic authors of Indian tales, but such as they are
they exhibit true samples of Indian eloquence at the present day,
however much it may differ from that in the time of the celebrated
Logan and others. In interpreting these speeches, the exact and
entire ideas of the Indians are preserved, though the words chosen
to express them are not always the same. We have had occasion to
remark on this head before that no Indian language admits of being
translated word for word; to do so, the purport desired by the
Indian would fail, injustice be done to his ideas as realized by him,
and a futility of words presented so devoid of order as to make no
impression on the person for whom they are intended.
Nevertheless it is not to be inferred that the ideas have been im-
proved upon. They are entire, and only so because clothed in the
only kind of words sufficient to convey the real extent of their
signification.
The occasion which produced the following speech by the Crazy
Bear was this: In the summer of 1837 the Assiniboin, with other
nations, were invited to attend the treaty at Laramie. It was with
great difficulty any of them could be persuaded to go, as the road
along the Yellowstone was beset with Blackfeet war parties ; but this
man with three others went in company with A. Culbertson, Esq.,
who was authorized to conduct them. The Crazy Bear was. while at
the treaty, made chief of the Assiniboin Nation by Col. D. D. Mitch-
ell, the United States commissioner, and on his return to his people
repeated to the nation the stipulations of the treaty, together with
the " talk " held at the rendezvous, but, as usual with Indians, was
not believed. It also hajjpened that in the ensuing spring, by some
delay, the merchandise intended for the Indians and promised them
598 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI Ibth. ANN. 46
at the treaty did not arrive in the "West in time to be for\Tarded, so
that summer passed and the Missouri froze over without any ap-
pearance of presents forthcoming. The Indians became dissatisfied,
thought they had been trifled with, abused Crazy Bear and me for
deceiving them, raised war jDarties, and bid fair to breali the treaty
and become more troublesome to whites than ever.
Amidst all this clamor and disturbance the chief stood firm and,
being supjjorted in office by the fort, all hostile demonstrations were
for the time averted. At this juncture, in January, 1853, Mr. Cul-
bertson arrived from St. Louis with orders from the superintendent
to supply the amount due the Indians as per treaty from the mer-
chandise of the fur company in this country. The nation therefore
being called together and placed in order in the interior of the fort,
the goods as per invoice laid in front of them, the Crazy Bear rose
and said :
" My children and friends : The clouds that have hitherto obscured
the sky are brushed away and a fine day appears before j^ou. The
time has arrived when all the turbulent and discontented must be
convinced that the whites have but one tongue ; that our great father,
the President, is rich and powerful. But a few days since most of
you were violent in your reproaches against myself and the whites.
If you have any more abuse left, heap it on now, disburden your
hearts at once of all complaint, make the pile of your abuse as large
as the pile of goods before you. The whites have kept their word
and your heads should hang in shame.
"When you were invited to the treaty you were afraid to go,
some to leave their wives, others their children, others to cross the
warpath of the Blackfeet. I went. I appeared among nations in
3'our name and am the cause of the present smiling pile of goods
being laid before you.
" When I returned from the treaty after an absence of three moons
and repeated to you the words of our Great Father, what was my
reception? How was I listened to? When, by some accident the
goods promised did not arrive, how did you act? What now do you
think of yourselves?
" I hold in my hands the words of our Great Father. They are
scored on my heart, were poured into my ears, did not run out, and
now is the most fitting time to I'epeat what I have so often told you
without being believed. Your Great Father does not want your
lands; he seeks your welfare. You are a few poor miserable beings;
he is rich, his jDeople are numerous as the leaves of the cottonwood.
He desires to stop the bloody wars heretofore existing between
Indian tribes, to make all one people, to enable all to hunt and visit
together in peace and friendship. He wishes you to refrain from all
DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 599
depredations on whites, respect your chief as a chief, and listen to
his words. For this he sends you these presents which will be
repeated every year for 15 years, unless by your misconduct you
incur his displeasure. I have heard the words; they are true. I
have seen his soldiers and know he has the power to punish those
who have no ears.
"A great deal of what you do and say is foolishness, the work
and talk of children, not of men. Last fall in despite, you raised
war parties, made threats against myself and the whites, gave me
trouble. You now see the rashness of your proceedings. Who gives
you these goods?
" Do you jjay for them ? Have you traded them ? Do you intend
to recompense your Great Father in any way? If so, listen to his
words. It has been said I have sold you to the whites — bartered
for your lands. I now tell you it is no such thing. There are no
stipulations made for your lands in these papers. They were not
even mentioned in the treaty. They are too cold for any persons
except Indians, or any animals other than those with heavy hair.
" The Blackfeet are yet your enemies, but are to be spoken to by
our Great Father; therefore let us refrain from war upon them to
advance the views of our Great Father. Since the treaty I have had
a son and a son-in-law killed by these people, and all my horses stolen
twice. I can count seven times damage they have done me and my
nation, but still I am disposed to remain quiet so that our Great
Father may be pleased. All of you do the same. The day is coming
when the Blackfeet will have ears given them.
" There are many poor people in this assembly that will be greatly
benefited by this distribution of goods. Indians are born poor ; they
are always poor. Whatever they get for nothing is a great help and
they should be thankful.
" I now appoint you six men, soldiers, for the equal distribution of
these goods. Let all have a fair share. Your duty as soldiers does
not end here. In the camp when you hear of war parties being
assembled, stop them.
" If any one breaks the treaty stipulations with regard to the
whites or other nations I desire j'ou to punish them. If you are
not able to do so you are no soldiers, and such disturbers shall be
taken down by the whites in irons.
" The President of the Ujnited States has thought fit to appoint me
your chief. Here is my medal; there are my papers. This makes
some of you jealous. You should have thought of it before and
plucked up courage enough to be seen at the treaty, that he could have
chosen a better man than I, if there be one. As it is, as long as I
600 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI (eth. ANN. 46
can stand and my voice holds good I shall never agree to what is
wrong nor be deterred from doing what is right.-' I have spoken."
It is the custom of most of the upper Missouri tribes when at the
fort for trading purjjoses for the principal men to make what are
called presents; that is, a portion of the buffalo robes are brought
into the office and with much ceremony laid at the feet of the gentle-
man in charge of the fort, which action is followed by a speech.
To a s^Dectator only viewing the act as a gift, and only understanding
the literal meaning of their speeches on the occasion, they would
appear to be the most liberal people in the world, as often 100 to 150
buffalo robes are laid down and carried out to the store without any
merchandise being produced in payment at the time, besides each
Indian distinctly states many times in his speech that it is absolutely
for nothing he ipakes the present.
But unfortunately for this generous appearance it has quite the
contrary signification. Tlie trader during tlie course of this harangue
receives hints enough as to the compensation for the present and the
Indian fully expects both the honor done to the trader and the skins
given to be paid for; in fact, requiring in return nearly double the
amount in value had the skins been handed, as is usual by the mass
of the Indians, to the clerk of the store without any ceremony. It is
at these times that the principal men make the speeches, such as the
one which follows, which, though not distinguished for beauty of
allegory or force of argument, may serve to show their shrewdness
and cunning, also their reliance on flattery to gain their ends. It
was necessary to premise this much so that the speech could be
understood in all its bearings.
SPEECH OF LE CHEF DU TONNEREE TO THE GENTLEMAN IN CHARGE OF
FORT UNION, JANUART, 1850
" My friend, my Father, look at me. You see standing before
you one of the poorest of his nation, but one who has a good heart
and open hand. Our Great Grandfather, the Earth, is the parent
of us all — ^Indians and whites. When Wakofida created man he
made two sorts; one clothed, comfortable, rich, plenty to eat, and
endowed with wisdom; these were the white men. The other he
produced naked, in a cold climate, poor, ignorant, obliged to hunt
for their meat, to labor, to starve, to suffer, to die; these were the
red men.
" Who receives the profits of their labor ? The whites. Who pro-
tects them from their enemies? Themselves. When your Great
Grandfather across the sea sent you to reside with Indians, what did
he say? Did he pour no good words into your ears? Did he not
"' Literally " my road shaU be in a straiglit line with my talk and not frightened
to one side."
DENIO] THE ASSINIBOIN 601
tell you, you will behold a poor, naked, starved nation, have pity on
them? I believe he did, he was a chief, a man of sense, a rich man,
and no doubt said, ' Give away a portion of your good things to the
Indian, let him feel wmething soft on his back. He is not an ani-
mal, his body is not covered with hair like the butfalo, but he is a
man like yourself and requires clothing to protect himself from the
cold. Are you not aware Indians freeze to death ? ' ^^
" When this big fort was built, when the first whites opened the
road up the Missouri, they found us with bone knives, stone axes,
clay jiots, stone arrow points, bone awls, and nothing but the bow
and arrow to kill game ; they had pity on us, and exchanged for our
skins iron arms and utensils.^^ In this they did well ; they bettered
the Indian ; they made themselves rich. They had sense. They also
gave us good words, and I have recollected them; they have been
handed down to us when children, and all good Indians remember.
1 was told if you meet a white man give him your hand, take him
to your lodge, give him to eat, let him have lodging, show him the
road. I have done so.
" If you meet him while on the warpath, do not steal his horse or
rob him of his property. If others steal his horses, bring them back;
if any of the fort property is damaged, pay for it. I have done so.
I was told to hunt, make robes, trade the skins for blankets, arms,
and ammunition. All this I have continued to do from my youth
to the present time. My part has been fulfilled. Yet you see me
before you still a poor man. I stand nearly alone in the village,
like an aged tree whose tops are dead. The bones of my friends
and relatives are piled around the fort or scattered over the plains.
All the eood, all the wise, all the handsome, all the brave were
rubbed out by the smallpox. Young men are growing, but they
are not like those of the old stock.
" The road to the foi-t gates has been swept free of grass by the
feet of my people in coming to trade. Each year we have loaded
your boats with the skins of our animals, and I now bring a few
more. The 10 robes laid before you are a present, for which I desire
nothing. I wish to make your heart glad and to have my name
remembered on the large books.^^ I know very well you are a chief
and will have pity on me. Let me feel something soft over my
shoulders.^" Bestow some glittering mark on my back,*" cover my
" Four Indians had at this time been frozen to death near his camp in a snowstorm.
" When the trade of the Missouri was opened the Assiniboin were the poorest of all
nations, and have remained so to this day.
s* It is customary to keep a list of men who behave well and make large trades.
=* A blanket is wanted.
*" Hint for a cliiet's coat.
88253°— 30 39
602 TEIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [bth. ann. 46
bare head *^ and let something gay *" appear there, that my young
men may know that I am respected at the fort.
" My leggings ^^ are worn out and the cold enters, and my breech
flap no more covers what is beneath. My body ^^ and neck ** are laid
bare in hunting skins in this cold weather. I lack some mark ^^ of
my standing with the fort to malve my young men listen to my words
to be good to the whites and hunt. If you wish many robes, recollect
the young men are hunters and can not kill buffalo without ammimi-
tion.*" The women have hard work dressing skins; their arms are
sore; some beads and vermilion *' would give them strength; and the
tobacco ^^ you will no doubt furnish me will be smoked by all my
people in talking over matters for the good of the fort and in the
councils for hunting. I know j'ou are a chief and good father to your
red children and will never refuse them what they aslc. Remember
our hardships, dangers, and exposures in hunting for you. Open
your heart and lengthen your measure and reduce,*" if ever so little,
on the prices of trade. Indians suffer for everything; even the
tobacco chewed and spit out by the whites is picked up and smoked
by them. Your store is large ; let your heart be so also. Let me be
able to sing your praise;^" your name is in the clouds; your father
was a chief ; you will be greater than he. Listen to the words of your
poor friend. I have spoken."
The Sioux make better speeches and use more figures than the
Assiniboin, but none of the many we have heard among both and
other nations are as replete with metaphor as is represented by
fiction writers. Either the Indians treated of by them were of a
superior order or the speeches have been liberally interj^reted. The
foregoing presents their style as it now exists among all the upper
Missouri tribes, though subjects of more importance, such as war,
peace, or religious rites, are accompanied by a proportionate earnest-
ness of oratory and boldness of gesture. They do not pride them-
selves on making fine or flowery speeches, but bold, pointed, and
sensible ones, and, if begging be the object, will descend to the grossest
flattering of their auditor, and vainness of their own merits.
" Hat desired.
<= Feathers desired.
'2 Leggings wanted.
" Sbirt and neck handkerchief desired.
^ Medal or gorget,
" Hint for general present of ammunition to the party.
" Some to each woman.
** An intimation that tobacco is not only wanted but plenty of it.
" This is an invariable request, and would be so no difference how long the prices
were.
™ Whoever makes a liberal present to Indians has his name sung around the camp
or fort in a song of thanks.
DBNIQJ
THE ASSIKTIBOIN
603
Picture Writing
Picture writing can not be said to be much practiced by any of
these tribes, though it is to some extent by all, principally by the
("row and Sioux Indians. The former of these nations are incessant
in the war expeditions against the Blackfeet, and in the absence of
the warriors the camp from which they departed moves in quest of
game, but pursue a direction made known to the warriors before they
leave. It often happens that the trail made by the camp is effaced
by rain or covered with snow before their return, also that they (the
camp) are obliged to diverge from the route agreed upon, and in
these cases leave intelligence in pictorial devices in some of their
encampments as guides to the returning absentees, who, if they find
them, can not fail to reach their friends by following the instructions
Figure 33. — Picture writing. Key: "We are a camp of 13 lodges (1) ; encamped on a
creek above the forlrs (2) ; started hunting with eight horsemen (3) and two women
on foot (4) ; slept two nights out (5) ; found buffalo beyond the second creels from
the camp (6) ; liilled some, and made travails (7j ; and slept but one night on our
return home (8)
pointed out by these means. (Fig. 35.) Another occasion where it
is useful is where a war party, after having made an attack, whether
successful or not, have reason to believe more of their own people are
out for like purposes, wish to convey to them the intelligence that
their enemies are on the alert, and prevent if possible their falling
into their hands, as would happen if they attemjjted to steal the
horses before the late excitement caused by their own appearance had
subsided. The information, together with the success or failure of
their own expedition and any other matters they wish their friends
to know, are pictured in some place likely to be found by those for
whom it is intended.
There is, however, this danger in these records, that if they are
stumbled upon by their enemies in their war excursions they are as
certain a guide to them as to their own people, and this is one of
the reasons why it is so seldom done. But the Crow Indians, who
rove through the spurs of the Rocky Mountains, frequently making
604 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [bth. ANN. 40
long and rapid marches, are compelled to leave such marks behind,
or some of their warriors would ramble about for months searching
for their homes, which would be extremely inconvenient should they
be driving before them a herd of their enemies' horses. The in-
formation conveyed by this system of writing is complete as far as
it is intended, which is only to represent leading and general facts,
and is not nor could it be applied to minute details. All warriors
read and understand the devices of their enemies and most of them
practice it when necessary, but the direction to war pursued by the
Cree and Assiniboin in the summer, being over plains, there are no
places noted as their usual encampments, and timber is seldom
found ; they therefore practice this manner of writing less than the
others, owing to the probable uncertainty of their being found by
their friends. In the winter, however, it is occasionally done by
them when their way lies along some river, and their encampments
are found by the small forts in which they have slept every night
being left standing.
The same species of intelligence is sometimes left in hunting
grounds with the view of announcing to any of their own nation
who are supposed to pass the same way that the game, as denoted
by the carcasses round, has been killed by friends, not war parties of
enemies, intimating to them the direction and situation of their
camp, that meat may be had there, that a juncture of forces is de-
sirable, etc. The number and kind of game taken are not painted
as the heads of the animals around would show that, but it, too,
could be explained if wislied.
These devices are generally drawn on some dry tree without the
bark, the characters being cut in the wood and filled up with
vermilion mixed with grease to jirevent it being waslied off by rain.
Pieces of bark and portions of skins are used, and in default of
either soft stone will answer. Powder dissolved in water is used to
mark on the skin, the impression being made with a pointed stick,
inked and pressed forcibly on the skin.
The meaning of every mark is fixed and exact, understood by the
mass of warriors of all tribes, not confined to or practiced by the
priests unless their situation in traveling be the same as the warriors
or hunters and they desire in like manner to convey some information
to the nation. The foregoing purposes in different forms are the
only ones to which we have liad the opportunity of witnessing the
application of these devices. Perhaps they are the only cases as yet
necessary for their present operations, but tliere would be no diffi-
culty in their picturing the passage of whites or other nations through
their country should it be required, and the same be intelligible to
them.
DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 605
Another form, and the one in which this manner of writing appears
to be of more importance among them, is the devices drawn on the
robes, exhibiting their standing as warriors whenever they apj^ear.
The height of distinction in an Indian, and his greatest ambition, is
to impress upon his own people or strangers the idea of his being
brave, of his having done acts tliat entitle him to appear among
men, of his superiority in this respect over others in the crowd;
therefore the actions which lead to these impressions are pictured
on his robe ; his biography is carried on his back so that " he who runs
may read." It insures him resjDect through life, an honorable shroud
at his death, and is believed to merit reward in futurity. A further
use these devices are made to serve is the representation of monsters
said to be seen by them in dreams, and supposed to have the eflect
when painted on their lodges of averting strokes of lightning, disease,
etc.
In like manner buffalo heads are pictured to bring those animals
in the direction of the camp, besides a great variety of smaller
devices are seen on their shields, drums, medicine sacks, and enve-
lopes of their amulets, to all of which appropriate and general mean-
ings are attached corresponding with their superstitious belief or
to insure success in domestic affairs. In con,versation with most
elderly Indians regarding locations, travels, or to exjalain battles
and other events, resort is had by them to drawing maps on the
ground, on bark with charcoal, or on paper if they can get it, to
illustrate more clearl}' the affair in question. In this way the chief
of the Crow Nation three years since made and left with us a map
(pi. 77) of his intended travels during the entire fall and winter suc-
ceeding, embracing a circumference of 1,500 miles, with the different
encampments to be made by that nation in that time, and so correct
was the drawing that we had no difRcultjf in finding their camp the
following winter in deep snow, one month's travel from this place. It
is regretted that those Indians are not now in this neighborhood, as in
that case some specimens of their charts and devices could be in-
serted, but in default of better we present in this jDlace some Assini-
boin drawings, with their explanations, which will serve to give a
general idea how they are managed, and other pictorial devices are
attached in several jjarts of this work.
These are the only forms the pictorial art of the Indians takes. It
is more largely applied to the designs represented on their robes
and mythological subjects when appearing on their lodges, fetish
envelopes, etc., as has been stated. Songs can not be recorded in this
or any other form. The value it may be to a people who are without
letters is mostly apparent in the instances where it denotes the rank
and standing of individuals when painted on their robes. The in-
606 TRIBES OF THE TIPPER MISSOURI [eth. ann. 46
formation intended only foi- their friends when cut on trees is liable
to be interpreted to their disadvantage by enemies, which would
consequently be a bar to its general practice. None of their draw-
ings are executed with neatness, but occasionally have some pre-
tensions to proportion. It appears to be the meaning only that is
desired, for 23aintings done by whites correctly are not more appre-
ciated as work of art, perhaps not so much, as their own rude repre-
sentations, but are looked upon with more superstitious dread.
The explanation of the drawing (pi. 78) would be as follows:
"We were a party of 20 men (1) and stole 39 horses (2) from the
Blackfeet " (see the 29 horse tracks so marked going away from the
camp). "The camp turned out, killed one of us" (see the picture
of a hand pointing toward their enemy's camp (3) and a scalped
man drawn) "and recaptured from us 14 horses (4) " (see the 14
tracks going back to camp, each track always standing for a horse).
"We forted and fought with them" (see (1) representing a brush
fort and the men therein; the guns pointing toward the fort (5)
are those of their enemies and the others signify tlie firing kept up
by themselves).
" In the battle three of us were wounded and six horses killed "
(see 6 representing a wounded man, and six horses stationary, seven ;
that is, going neither way, proving them to be unable to travel).
" We got off with 19 horses " (8) (this being the tracks of horses leav-
ing the fort) ; " the first night we encamped on the plains near a
spring " (9) (the dotted line shows the path, and 9 is intended to rep-
resent a small fort or sleeping place, with another dotted line to the
left where the spring (10) is marked). " In the encamj^ment we left
a wounded man (6) ; we made two more encampments after that, when
we now leave this painting and intend pursuing our course home to
the right. A band of buffalo (11) was seen on the opposite side of
the river on a creek while the battle was going on, which are all we
have yet seen." (These marks mean buffalo tracks.)
The end of the dotted line is as far as they have then gone, and
other marks show the road they intend to pursue, but if they expect to
get home without sleeping the dotted line is made as far as the lodges.
Explanation of Plate 79.— "We are a party of 10 men (1), have
stolen 21 horses (2) from the Blackfeet and taken a scalp (3), but
lost one of our own party. The first night we forted on a creek (4),
the second night we slejjt on the prairie in a small fort at the foot
of some timbered hills (5), the third night we slept at a lake (6),
the fourth at a spring (7) where we are now. We intend to make
three more encamiDments to get to our lodges, which are on the head
of the next river (8). These figures (9) represent the lodges of their
enemies, and the horses' tracks going from the lodges, indicating
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 77
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MAP OF REGION ABOVE FORT UNION
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 78
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DENIQ] THE ASSINIBOIN 607
them to have been stolen, each single mark (10) counting a horse.
The guns, bows, and lances show the party to be 10 (1). The hand
pointing the direction in which they are traveling and toward a
scalp (11) intimates that they have killed an enemy. The hand
pointing the other way with the scalp (12) explains they have lost
one of their party. The dotted line is their path home along a river
and only extends as far as they have traveled to the place where the
painting was left. The number of days they expect yet to travel to
reach home are indicated by these characters (8, 10), the one a brush
fort, signifies the number of encampments, and the horse track with
it means it is the road they intend to travel."
Myth Telling
As has been several times mentioned in these pages, one of the
principal ways of passing time at night in an Indian camp is the
recital of fables for their amusement. Most old men and women can
recount these stories, but there are some particularly famed for their
talents in this respect, and these are compensated for their trouble
by feasting, smoking, and small presents. At night, when all work
is over, a kettle is put on containing some choice meat, tobacco mixed
with weed prepared, the lodge put in order, the family collected, and
the story-teller invited, who often prolongs his narrations the
greater j^art of the night. Some of the tales are of a frightful kind,-
and to their impression on young minds is no doubt mainly to be
attributed the fear of ghost monsters and other imaginary super-
natural powers exhibited by most Indians when grown.
We have taken some pains to call together a few of the most famed
and sensible story-tellers and listened with much patience to a great
many of their allegories, but find nothing in any of them bearing
on their ideas of a future state.^^ The circumstances and actors por-
trayed do not reveal the actual notions of the tribe on their religion
as it now exists but are founded on their ancient mythology and
handed down complete in their details through successive genera-
tions, and their real signficance, if they ever had any further than
amusement, is now lost or absorbed in their manner of worship as
referred to in these pages.
Nevertheless, we can discern in them a probability of their being
the real belief of their ancestors in their primitive ignorance, before
their gruperstitions and religions had assumed a systematic form and
tangible shape. This much may be inferred by the tacit acjjnowl-
edgment of their truth apparent in the auditors and the unwilling-
"' This inference on the part of Denig indicates that he was not cognizant of the facts,
poetically expressed, conveyed by native Indian myths, and so be reached the false con-
clusion that all myths are no more nor less than simple fictions, when, in fact, except in
their verbal dress, they are true. He failed to interpret rightly the metaphorical diction.
608 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ANN. 46
ness evinced by all to hear them ridiculed or contradicted. We think
the truth of the matter is these tales were believed and formed a
portion if not the greater part of the religion of their ancestors,
are reverenced for their antiquity and originality, together with a
lingering uncertainty as to their having actually transpired in
times long passed. This may be deduced from the evident venera-
tion with which some of them are regarded, and from the fact that
there are no new fables made at the present day, nor any one who
possesses or professes the character of a mj'th maker. These stories
are not added to or diminished, for if in the telling the least cir-
cumstance be omitted the narrator is reminded of the error and
corrects it. In none of them is the creation of animals or other
objects, animate or inanimate, reasonably attempted, though such
things are alluded to in many absurd forms and grotesque imagin-
ings according with the general tenor of the tale. These, though
often trifling in their details, present a connected chain of events
and often contain a kind of moral, that is, a double meaning as
observed in the one relating to the formation of the Ursa Major and
Polar Star, before inserted.
None of these serve to demonstrate to the young the jDower and
ubiquity of Wakonda.^- This awful principle is too much feared
to be lightly introduced in common conversation or connected with
. amusing tales, though inferior demons and minor supernatural pow-
ers with a great variety of figTires of the imagination, such as mon-
sters, ghosts, giants, beasts with reasoning powers, transformation,
and works of necromancy, are represented.
There does not ajjpear to be much useful instruction conveyed by
any of these oral tales, but they are resorted to as a source of amuse-
ment. Stories related by us to them from books, such as the fables
of ^sop or those from the "Arabian Nights," are listened to with
great attention and sought after as eagerly as their own fiction.
Moreover, they can, when these fables are plainly narrated, not only
comjDrehend the literal meaning but appreciate the moral when it is
pointed, not in its moral sense but as a necessary conclusion arising
from the circumstances related. The only objection to recording
many of these tales is their interminable length, one frequently occu-
pying two or three hours in its recital. So remarkably long are they
that the auditors ar9»apt to become sleepy, and the narrator, if not
responded to occasionally to convince him of their attention, breaks
off and abruptly takes his leave. We now subjoin some of these
stories that may serve to show the scope of imagination involved
and that others may form their own opinions regarding their interest
and utility.
" This statemont is highly questionable, since these Indians show a deep reverence for
Wakofida, the highest God of their pantheon, as may be learned from various passages
In Denig's own report.
DENio] THE ASSINIBOIN 609
Fables
Related by " The Ear Rixgs of Dog's Teeth," an Old Assiniboin
A long time ago there lived a great chief of a powerful nation,
but he was a fearful and desperate man. He had killed six of his
wives at different times in fits of jjassion, and at the time of our
story had separated from his people, being jealous of his wife, and
placed his lodge alone on the bank of a small stream. His family
consisted of his wife, a boy say 12 years old, and a girl about 10 years,
both his children by the woman now with him. The man went out
hunting, and tlie game being far off did not return for several days.
In the meantime the woman continued her domestic duties at home.
Being in the timber in quest of wood, she struck her ax on a hollow
tree and a great many snakes came forth, one of which ^^ was large
and handsome, had a fascinating eye and horns upon his head, spoka
sweet words to the woman, and in the end succeeded in seducing her.
Her husband returned and inquired of her " What had become of the
paint on her face, which he put there before starting? She made
some liesitating answer and he susjaected all was not right and
determined to watch. In tlie course of a few clays he gave out that
he was again going hunting and might be absent some time, as he
had not yet seen game. He as usual painted his wife's face and
departed. In place of going to hunt he hid in the bushes to watch
his wife, who made her visits to the snake's nest, striking on the tree
and calling on the horned snake in terms of endearment to come
forth. The snake came out, and the husband witnessed the infidelity
of his wife.
He remained a day or two near the jjlace, and each day observed his
wife to repair to the snake's den for like purposes. He then returned
home. She was absent, but returned in a short time. " My wife,"
said he, " I have killed a deer some distance off ; go and get the meat."
After having received instructions as to where the meat was to be
found, the woman departed with her dogs to bring it. In the mean-
time her husband went into the bushes, struck with his battle ax on
the snake's house, saying, "My husband, come forth," imitating the
voice of his wife. The reptile sallied out with all his familj' and the
Indian destroyed them all with his battle ax. Gathering up the
snakes, he carried them home and cooked them by boiling them to
a jelly. His wife returned without finding any meat (as indeed
there was none), and found her husband sitting down sharpening a
huge flint ax. He invited her to sit down, and observing that she
must be hungry after such a long travel, poui-ed into a bowl the mess
of snakes, which he handed to his wife, who, thinking it was some
^' The Fire Dragon or Mateor — Son of the gods.
610 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ANN. 46
other kind of meat, ate the whole. After she had feasted, the man
said, " You have eaten your beloved husband, the snake, and now you
shall follow him." He rose up and cut her head off at one stroke of
his sharp ax. A storm arose, the wind blew, the thunder rolled, and
the man disappeared in a whirlwind of dust and was caught up in
the air. The children, much frightened at all this, ran out of the
lodge over the prairie, never ceasing their speed until they were at
some distance.
On stopping to rest themselves they looked back and beheld the
Head of their mother rolling after them, calling on them to stop.''*
This frightened them more and they continued their flight. The
Head rolling after them was now very near and the children were
very tired. The boy threw his knife behind him and immediately
the jDrairie was bristling with knives, through which the Head on
endeavoring to pass was cut in a dreadful manner, and stopped in
its course. The children continued their way. A fox came to where
the Head lay, and the Head said, " My friend, I am in want of a hus-
band, will you marry me?" "You are too ugly," replied the fox
and disappeared into his hole. The Head followed the fox, who
being afraid of it, when he arrived at the end of the burrow com-
menced digging farther in great haste, the Head still following and
calling on the fox to stop. But the animal dug very fast, and
finding he could not escape from the Head in this way came out to
the surface of the earth near where the children were. The Head
also came out and, jDerceiving them, rolled after them, coaxing them
to stop, but they ran forward until they arrived at the top of a hill.
The little girl said, " My brother, I am tired, throw something else
behind you, the Head is close upon us." He threw his awl and up
rose innumerable awls on the prairie which, pointing toward the
Head, formed a^ barrier which it could not pass. The children con-
tinued their flight. A badger appeared alongside of the Head.
The Head said to it, " My fine fellow, I wish to man-y you. Will
you be my husband ? " " Your face is too ugly and bloody for me,**
said the badger, and disappeared in his hole.
The Head followed the badger, who like the fox continued digging
underneath the ground, making a road underneath the awls in
the direction the children were going, so that the Head came out
again to where they were seated resting themselves. On seeing it
they again ran forward, the Head after them calling on them to stop,
but they were afraid. Again did the little girl get tired and ask
her brother to save them by throwing something behind him. He
threw his tinder or spunk, and immediately the prairie took fire,
spreading out behind them, burning the Head to a cinder, leaving
" The Whirlwind that took up her husband.
DENiG] THE ASSINIBOIN 611
nothing but the bones. The children traveled on. A wolf this time
came near the Head and, as with the fox and badger, was desired
by the Head to become her husband. " You are nothing but a fright-
ful ghost," exclaimed the wolf, and ran into his hole. The Head
followed, the wolf dug, and in the end the Head again came out
near the children. They ran forward and arrived at the bank of a
large river. Two cranes were standing on the bank. The boy re-
quested the cranes to carry them over. One of the cranes asked
the boy, "How does my breath smell?" "Very sweet," said he,
" as though you had eaten service berries." " Good," replied the
crane, " now both of you get on my back." They being seated, the
bird flew across and landed them in safety on the opposite shore.
In the interim the Head came to where the other crane was standing
and commanded it to bear it over immediately, as it was in a great
hurry to overtake the children. The bird pi'oposed the same ques-
tion. " How does my breath smell ? " " It smells of stinking fish,"
replied the Head. " Good," said the crane, " now get on my back."
The Head having placed itself, the bird flew, and when about the
middle of the stream shook the Head off its back in the water, which
on falling cried out, " Now, I go to dwell among the fishes ! "
The children perceiving thejr were freed from their tormentor
continued their route more at leisure, and after traveling some days
they arrived at a large camp very hungry and very tired. It was
the camjD of their father, and he was there as its chief. When he
saw his children he abused them for having a bad mother, would not
let any person give them food nor take them into their lodge. He
brought cords, bound the children's hands, and taking them outsfde
the camp raised them into a tree, tied them both together and to the
top limb of a large tree. He then ordered the whole camp to move
off and thus left his children to perish. After all had gone he again
looked that his children were secure and examined the camp to see
that no one remained behind, but perceived nothing but a little old
dog lying on an extinguished fire, with his head in a large shell
for a pillow, apparently sick. " Why do you remain behind the
camp ? " inquired the man. " Because I am sick and can not travel,"
answered the dog. The man was enraged, told the dog to begone,
kicked it, but he only howled and would not raise his feet. The
chief after beating the old dog so that he thought him dead left
and followed his people. As soon as he departed and was out of
sight the dog rose and sought the tree where the children were, com-
menced gnawing at the root of it, and in four daA's and nights it fell
to the ground.
He then gnawed off their cords, which occupied two nights more,
and the children found themselves free but so very weak they could
612 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ANN. 46
not travel. The little old dog rambled through the ground where
the camp had been placed, discovered a piece of rotten wood afire,
and brought it to where the children were. He gathered other
branches and made them a comfortable fire, at which they warmed
themselves. The little boy covered his eyes with his hands and hung
his head, his sister cried, they were very hungry and very miserable.
" Look, my brother, what a fine herd of elk is near ! " the girl ex-
claimed as about 50 of those animals came walking toward them.
The boy looked at them, wishing they were dead so that they might
have meat, and as soon as he looked upon them they all fell dead.
They went to them, and, having no knife wherewith to skin them,
the boy wished them skinned, and in a moment they were so. He
now began to see the power granted him, which was to look upon and
wish for anything he desired. By the same means he produced the
elk skins dressed and made into a large lodge, far larger than any
of his people, which was erected, and the meat of the elk piled around
the lodge on scaffolds outside. In the interior was an ajDartment for
the little old dog. They were now happy.
Day after day large herds of liuffalo came near the lodge, and on
looking at them the boy killed them, skinned them, and placed the
meat on scaffolds, cut up and dried.
Wlien he thought he had enough he made a feast to the magpies
and desired one of them to take along some fat meat and fly in the
direction of the camp to endeavor, if possible, to overtake them. The
bird left and after flying some days arrived at the camp. They were
all starving, having had no meat for a long time. Some of the men
w6re playing ball in the middle of the camp. The magpie advanced
and dropi^ed a large depouille among them and all scrambled to get
a share. They inquired of the bird where he got the meat, and
received the information, together with the news, that a great deal
of meat was on scaffolds, enough to feed the whole camp. The father
of the children was the chief; he called a council and determined on
going back to the large supply of food, but knew it belonged to his
children from the description given of them by the magpie. In due
time the camp arrived at the boy's lodge and placed their tents. The
boy sat in his lodge, his head down, and his eyes covered with his
hands. All the camp with his father at their head came around
begging him for meat. But the boy answered not a word, neither did
he look up. The rest had no power to take the meat, not even to
approach the scaffolds. The second day after their arrival his sister
said, " Do, my brother, come out and look what a fine camp of our
people are here." He went, looked, and all fell dead in their lodges,
or wherever they happened to be. At this the little old dog began to
cry and besought the boy to revive his (the dog's) relations, who fell
with the others. " Show me them," said the boy. " They shall live."
DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 613
He went with the dog through the camp, who pointed out his sisters
and brothers, all lying dead. The boy revived them by looking upon
them.^° After a short time the little girl said, " My brother, it is a
great pity so many fine men and women should die. Look upon them
and let them live again." The boy did as desired and the whole
camp was again called to life and motion.
He then made a feast, called all of them together, distributed the
meat, and told them of the conduct of their father toward them.
The boy was made chief of the camp, the little old dog was trans-
formed into a man and became the first soldier, and the father was
degraded to be a scullion and bearer of burdens for the whole.
By a Woman
An old woman lived in a lodge alone except her children, and raised
corn in a garden. One of her little boys was shooting birds with
arrows in the garden, when on a sudden ajjpeared a sack full of rice,
which, dancing up and down before the boy, sung out, " My nephew,
shoot me and eat me, my nephew, shoot me and eat me." (This part
is sung by the narrator.) The boy shot an arrow into the sack and
all the rice spilled on the ground. Here the story ends with a
general laugh.
Bt Tah-tun-gah-hoo-hoo-sa-chah, or " The Buix's Dry Bones," an Old
AND Famed Priest of the Assiniboin
The whole surface of the earth was at a time covered with water;
in fact, no land existed but at the bottom of this great ocean. Seven
persons were on a raft, viz, five men and two women. These were
the first Gros Ventres, besides whom the only living objects visible
were a Frog, a Muskrat, a Crow, and a Spider. The men, wishing
for land and being informed in a dream how to act, told the Muskrat
to dive to the bottom of the water and try to bring up a portion of
earth. The being plunged, remained a long time under, but ap-
peared without any. He was ordered to try again, and dived still
farther, remaining under a much longer time, but reappeared with
nothing. Again and again he plunged and at last disappeared for
such a length of time that all thought he was drowned, but he
rose to the surface, stretching out his claws to those on the raft,
saying, " I have brought it," and immediately expired from ex-
haustion. They drew in the being and scraped from between his
claws a small portion of earth wdiich they made into a flat cake, set
it on the water, and behold it spread rapidly in every direction.
°^ 111 Chippewa and cognate Algonquian dialects the Life God, Nanabozho (i. e.,
iDabi'ozio'j, was cr<.'ated, mythic tradition explains, by a look of the Great Father Spirit
in the heavens, gazing down through the Sun as His shield. Such is the literal meaning
of this illuminating designation.
614 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [BTH. ANN. 46
They then called the Crow, gave it directions to fly as far as the earth
extended. The bird departed but did not return, from which they
concluded it to be so extensive that the Crow could not come back.
Being in possession of land, and seeing all was damp and cold and
barren, they wished for spring to make something grow, and inquired
of the frog how many moons remained until spring would come.
The Frog said, " Seven," but the Spider contradicted it, called him a
liar, on which a quarrel ensued, and the Spider beat the Frog to death
with a stick. The latter, on dying, stretched out his legs toward
the men, indicating seven by the claws thereon. The eldest of the
party and head of the whole, whom they called their father, not
being certain whether the Frog told the truth, started two of
the others (brothers), both very brave and venturesome, with orders
to travel in quest of spring. They set out eastward and in six
months arrived at warm weather, where they found spring bundled
up and placed on a scaffold, the packages consisting of flowers, seeds,
turnips, roots, etc. Two large Cranes were standing beneath the
scaffold, which the brothers loaded with the " spring season " and
ordered them to fly back to their people. The birds started, and in
another month arrived with their cargo safe, thus verifying the
predictions of the Frog, which so enraged the men against the Spider
that they put him to death, and he is to this day despised and
crushed by all, while the frogs every sjDring sing forth the praises of
their truthful ancestor.
The travelers, having accomplished their mission, bent their course
westward to explore the new country, and after a long time came
to the Rocky Mountains.
In one of the valleys between the mountains they perceived a
motion in the earth at a certain spot as though it was boiling or as
though some animal was endeavoring to get out. One of the brothers
proposed shooting an arrow into it, but the other objected and re-
quested him to let it alone. The former was, however, a very obsti-
nate, reckless man who never would listen to good advice, and shot
an arrow into the spot. A whirlwind gushed out, and rose up in
the air in a round black colunm, bearing the two men up along with
it. Higher and higher they rose until so far above the earth that
they could not see it. The wind now carried them eastward for sev-
eral days, when at length they descended to earth on the other side
of the sea. Here they rambled about some time and found an old
woman working in a cornfield from whom they begged something
to eat. She gave them a mess of corn and potatoes. After having
eaten they inquii-ed of her if she could inform them how they could
get back to their family. She said she could, but they must implicitly
follow her directions or some harm would befall them. After they
DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 615
had made the required j^romises she took them to the seashore, made
a sacrifice of some com to the water and involred the appearance
of the Waii-wau-kah. Immediately afar off appeared an object mov-
ing over the surface of the water, spouting it out high in tlie air,
and, approaching with great rapidity, soon arrived at the place
where the travelers stood. The being thus conjured up had the head
of a man, though of monstrous size, and out of which projected two
horns as large as the largest trees.
The body was that of a beast covered with long black hair, the tail
was like that of a very large fish and covered with scales, and it was
endowed with a spirit. To this monster the woman gave dii'ections
and made two seats in its horns like large birds' nests, one in either
antler, in each of which slie placed a man, in one a sack of corn
and in the other a sack of potatoes. Spreading out her hands and
invoking the sun, the monster at her desii'e departed with its cargo
and in a great many days arrived at the opposite shore in safety.
The old woman had instructed the travelei's that immediately on
landing they should sacrifice to the waters, by throwing in a little
corn. One of them did so, but the obstinate brother would not.
Being reproached by the monster for not following the advice of the
woman he shot an arrow into it and was immediately swallowed up
by the beast. The remaining brother was in great distress at this,
and, recollecting the conduct of the old woman, made a sacrifice
of some corn. Stretching out his hands he invoked the Sun to his
aid. Immediately a dark round sjDOt appeared in the west which
came forward with terrible velocity and a whistling sound, in-
creasing in size and speed as it approached. This was a thunder
intone, which, with an awful report and bright flash, struck the
monster on the back, separated it in two, and the man was liberated.
A terrible storm arose, the sea rolled, and the monster disappeared.
They now bent their course westward and after many days came to
a lodge inhabited by an old man and his family, from whom they
begged something to eat. He showed them immense herds of buifalo,
apparently tame, and all black except two, which were milk white.
He told them to kill whichever they wished, but not to destroy more
than they wanted for food or clothing. The good brother killed a
fat cow, which, being more than they wanted, he took the rest of the
meat to the old man's lodge. The other remained behind and shot
arrows into a great many buffalo uselessly, for which the old man
reproached him. After having feasted they were about departing
when the old man showed them a great number of ducks and geese.
"These," said he, "with the buffalo, ai'e our life; treat them well."
On the old man's leaving the Indian who had no ears commenced
killing the birds with a club and made great havoc, The old man
616 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ann. 46
returned and said, " You have done wrong, you are a bad man, evil
will befall you, the Wau-wau-kah shall bar your road home to your
people. But your brother is a good man, has ears, and for his sake
some of my buffalo will follow him home to his people, and the white
cowskin shall be his fetish to remember me by." They separated;
the travelers pursued their journey and encamped on the prairie at
the foot of what they supposed was a mountain, but which was the
Wau-wau-kah lying across their road. In the morning they advanced
to go around it, but, turn whichever way they would, the monster
turned with them and obstructed their way, so that the whole day
was spent in useless efforts to get forward.
The good brother jiroposed sacrificing some corn to appease it,
but the other became very angry and would not listen to any peaceful
measures. He collected immense piles of buffalo dung all around
the monster and set it on fire, by which the Wau-wau-kah was
roasted alive. The smell of the roast being savory he cut out a
slice and ate it, offering some to his brother, who, however, would
not taste thereof. In the morning they continued their way, the
buffalo following at a distance. At rising the ensuing morning the
one who had eaten the flesh of the monster said, " Look, my brother,
what handsome fine black hair is growing from my body." The
other looked and beheld the hair of the beast. On the next morn-
ing he said, "Look at my head, my brother, horns are coming out
upon it," and so it was. On the third morning he said. " Look at
my legs, my brother, fish scales are growing there." Each and every
morning when they arose the Indian was assuming more and more
the shape and apearance of the Wau-wau-kah. In the course of a
few days his body was completely covered with hair, his head was
furnished with horns of a monstrous size, and his legs were growing
together in tlie form of a fish. They traveled on, the body and
entire shape of the Indian rapidly increasing in size and appearance
to that of the monster whose flesh he had eaten. They now pro-
ceeded slowly, owing to the difficulty the one experienced in walking
by the change he was undergoing, and this impediment increasing
in proportion as his extremities gradually assumed the form of a fish.
In the course of time they arrived at the mouth of the Yellow-
stone and encamped for the last time together. The change was
now nearly completed, and when they arose in tlie morning behold
a complete Wau-wau-kah was presented, who said to the other,
"Depart, I am no more your brother; I am no more a man; I am
either your friend or your enemy, according to the way you treat
me. Leave. You will find your people several days' travel down
on the banks of the Missouri. Take them the corn. Yonder stand
the buffalo you have brought; they will follow you home. You will
DENIO] THE ASSINIBOIN 617
become a powerful nation. Each and every year they must sacrifice
some corn to me by throwing it into the Missouri, or the wind shall
blow, the rain fall, the water rise and destroy your crops. As for
me, I shall be separated here; my head will go up into the clouds
and govern the wind, my tail fall into the water and become a
monstrous fish to disturb it. My bod}' will rove through the Rocky
Mountains; my bones may be found, but my spirit will never die-
Depart, you have ears and a good heart."
At the close of this speech the winds blew, the thunder rolled, the
lightning flashed, and a terrible storm arose, amidst which the mon-
ster disappeared. The other returned to his people, told them the
stoi-y of his travels, and to this day corn is sacrificed to the Missouri
by the Gros Ventres to appease the spirit of the Wau-wau-kah.
Songs; Music "^
The construction of the Indian flute and music produced by it have
already been described, although we are not able to state in what
manner, if any, it resembles the Arcadian pipe.
Most ceremonies, dances, public domonstrations of joy or grief,
and other matters of general interest are accompanied by songs, which
have appropriate names, but these chants are for the most part only
tunes or modulations of voices in concert, with the introduction of a
few words in some of them. They are in fact a continued chorus
consisting chiefly in repeating the meaningless syllables " Hai-yah,
hai-yah, hai-ai-ai-yah-ah-ah, hai-yah, he-e-e-ah, hai-yah," etc., fast or
slow as required by the nature of the song. Where words are intro-
duced they are composed of five or six syllables or three or four
words, bearing some relation to the event which is honored with the
song, but are of no consequence, so that all question regarding their
rhyme or poetical compositions maj' be passed over in silence. The
tune is generally begim by one person pitching it, who after singing
a few notes, is joined by the whole choir, or sometimes, as in the"
scalp .song, the women add their voices in the second part of the tune,
where the name of the warrior who killed the enemy is mentioned.
The modulations are bold and wild, by no means discordant or dis-
agreeable, and they are remarkable for keeping very exact time
either with the voice, drums, or feet, and where words are added they
are so few, and the syllables so separated to accord as scarcely to be
understood or distinguished from the rest of the chant.
The songs are measured, accents occur at fixed and regular in-
tervals, being mostly the same in beats as the Scotch reel time. The
efl'ect intended is produced by action, energy of voice and motion,
■* For the recording and Interpretation of Siouan music see Miss Frances Densmore,
Bull. 61, Bur. Amer. Ethn.
88253°— 30 40
618
TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI
[BTH. ANN. 46
costume, and the wild intonations of the tune, not from words re-
j)eated. These songs are suitable to the occasion, and the whole when
well got up has a decidedly unique appearance, singularly corre-
spondent in all its component parts. These chants are very difficult
for us to learn and scarcely less so to describe, but are preferred by
them to any music, vocal or instrumental, of white performers yet
presented to them. The length of a tune is about equal to eight
bars of our common time, and the syllables to each beat vary from
four to eight, but in some of the medical songs the intonation is so
rapid as scarcely to admit of being counted. Songs for dancing,
medicine (that is, the practice of healing), and on other assemblies
are generally accompanied with drums, bells, rattles, flutes, and
whistles, of all of which the drum is the principal instrmnent, for
though on some occasions all of them and several of each kind are
used, yet there are none in which the drum is not used, but several
where the rest are dispensed with.
Independent of public songs, singing is a very common amusement
for tlie young men at nights, principally to attract the attention of
the females, and often intended as signals for secret assignations.
Subjoined is a list of most of their songs, in reading over which it
will be observed that there are none denominated " Hunting songs,"
that employment not being celebrated in song in any way, either for
success or failure, imless the incantative song by the Master of the
Park to bring the buffalo toward it would be construed in that light.
The uses of the others can be traced in their names, taken in connec-
tion with what has already been written concerning their ceremonies.
The words " do- wan " attached to all means " a song."
Songs of the Sioux, Crow, and Assiniboin Nations
Indian name
Interpretation
Occasion, etc
Chan-du'-pah do-wan .
Incantation Pipe song...
Two or three varieties.
Te-chagh'-ah do-wan _ ,
Incantation Lodge song.
park.
Religious.
Pai-hun-ghe-nah do-wan
White Crane song.
Song of the Braves
war.
Incantation — in the song of that name.
Ah-kitchetah do-wan
Used at the soldiers' dance.
Ah-do-wah _ . .
Diviner's song forthesick
About 20 different kinds.
Sung while performing that operation.
Gathering of the kins
Buffalo Park song
Horse song
tat ion).
Shunga-tunga do-wan _
In the whip dance.
Sung on starting to war.
More than ten varieties.
We do-wan
Sun song
Religious.
DENiG] THE ASSINIBOIN 619
Songs op the SiotTT, Crow, and Assiniboin Nations — Continued
Indian name
Interpretation
Occasion, etc.
We-chah-nauge do-wan
Song to the dead
Lament.
Several.
Wah-ghunh'-ksecha do-wan. .
Bear song
Medicine.
Hand gambling song
Moccasin gambling song,
Incantationsongandfeast
Women's dance song
Elk song. --
Hampah-ah-he-vah _
We-hhnoh'-hhnoh
Medicine for elk, religious.
Their drums are of two kinds. The most common is made like
a tambourine without its bells, the skin forming the head being
stretched over the hoop while wet and kept there by sinews being
passed through it and the hoop a few inches apart. (PI. 80, fig. 1.)
The inside portions of tlie skin liave cords made of sinew extending
across from several jjlaces, meeting in the middle and forming a
handle to hold it up by (2). It is held up in one hand and beaten
with a stick by the other, no more beats being made than are neces-
sary to correspond with the accents of the notes, tluis preserving the
time.
The other kind of drum is made of a piece of hollow dry tree
about 21/2 feet long, scraped to a shell and smooth inside and out,
resembling in shape a staff churn (3). The head or skin is stretched
on the smaller end with a hoop, which is retained in its place
by sinews passed through. The other is left open. When beaten
but one stick is used, the drum being set on end. Both are often
painted with different devices. The rattles, wag-ga-mo (Sioux) or
Chi-chi-quoin (Cree), were originally and in a measure still are
gourds dried with the seeds in, or after being dried the seeds, etc.,
are taken out and pebbles put in (4). Others are made of the
rawhide of elk stretched over a slight frame of woodwork while wet
and dried in that shajDC, pebbles being put therein at holes left in the
top or in the liandlc (5 and 6). No. 7 is tlie rattle used by the
" braves " in their dance. It is made of rawhide like the rest, but in
the form of an open ring.
No. 8 is the rattle made out of deer and antelope hoofs scraped thin
and light, reduced in size, and a number of each attached to small
strings, so closely that they clash together when shaken. The
flute (9) is made of wood, and tlie whistle (10) is the wing bone of a
swan. These have before been described. From what has preceded
it will be understood that there are no verses in their songs evincing
their patriotism, or other chants representing their triumphs; that
all is chorus and tune. Their laments for the dead are of the same
620 TRIBES OP THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ANN. 46
description, adding a few words and calling upon the departed by
stating the degree of relationship, the few mournful words to deplore
their loss, and the rest of the chant is in meaningless ejaculations.
Their music is never recorded nor have they such things as music
boards or bark songs. In their bacchanalian songs they often repeat
catches of whatever comes into their minds at the time, adapting the
words to the song, but these words or any particular expressions do
not projDerly belong to the songs, which in their original are of the
same description as the others.
Many lullabies are sung to children by their mothers, but as usual
but few words introduced, consisting mostly of humming of different
tunes to put them to sleep, adding sometimes, " Sleep, sleep, my pretty
child," or " Red fox come here ; you will get a marrow bone to eat " —
this when they are 2 or 3 years old.
There is nothing in their painting or sculpture worthy of notice.
All are rude drawings and carvings scarcely intelligible without ex-
planation.
Present Condition and Future Prospects
The nations we write of are as yet in their savage state. But
few steps have been taken by them in the path of knowledge. Their
original manners and customs, if not entire, are but slightly changed,
their superstitions the same as their ancestors, and their minds
deplorabh' void of moral truth or useful science. Their idol wor-
ship remains undisturbed by religious teachers, and the humane
efforts in this respect, extended to China and the South Seas, are
withheld from the coppered brethren i-esiding next door.
There are some points not to be overlooked, inasmuch as they have
a general bearing upon the whole race, involving a subject of great
interest to which the foregoing details form but the prelude. The
principal of those to which we allude is this: "How far has knowl-
edge, art, and commerce, and the progress of civilization, affected
the improvement of the Indians, and changed or modified their
original manners, customs, and opinions? "
As art and loiowledge are yet in their infancy among them and
as has been stated but little improvement in their moral condition is
visible, yet great and important changes have been brought about
by the commerce of trade, without which any plan for their future
advancement would be retarded a century, and by correct apprecia-
tion of which views can be fonned regarding contemplated measures
for their prosperity.
In the foregoing pages, which present their savage life in detail,
nothing speculative has been ventured upon, no conjectures hazarded,
by us or by anyone well acquainted with the wild tribes, nor will any
PBNiQ] THE ASSINIBOIN 621
new opinions be perceived. The whole is merely a collection of
facts, thrown together in the form of answers to certain questions
without further comment than necessary for their illustration and
clothed in the simplest garb of verbiage to facilitate their compre-
hension.
When we entered the fur trade in the spring of 1833, now 21
years since, all the Indians herein treated of, from the Sioux to the
Blackfeet, inclusive, were much more ignorant in everything, degrad-
ing in their habits, slovenly in appearance, and barbarous in their
actions than they now are. Life was then held by a slight tenure,
crime was frequent, atrocious disorder and family feuds were general,
and their occupations confined to slaughtering their enemies, murder-
ing each other, and providing for their families only in extremes of
necessity.
The traders of the Columbia Fur Co. and after them those of the
American Fur Co. were men of ability, honesty, and truth. In the
course of their dealings, intermarriages, and conversations with the
Indians, the minds of the latter were enlarged, a different train of
thought and action engendered, new desires created which gave a
stimulus to industry, which raised the Indian from the level of the
brute to the standing of an intellectual being.
The enmities formerly existing between different bands of the
same nations, arising from the petty jealousies of chiefs or private
family animosities, were soldered up by the traders. To be sure their
object in this was personal gain, but that is immaterial, the beneficial
results arising from their traffic, etc., were consolidation of force and
interest of the Indians, unity of purpose and action, entailing order
in their government, a great diminution of family feuds and private
quarrels, and an application of their time to the comfort and welfare
of their families instead of its being spent in bloody contention or
domestic idleness or discord.
The introduction of firearms, metallic cooking utensils, and other
tools gave them a greater reliance on their own powers, increased
their hunting operations, and with them their domestic comfort, by
these means withdrawing their attention from their barbarous prac-
tices and opening a new field for their exertions. With the substi-
tuting of European instruments and clothing arose a different kind of
pride than that of olden time. The distinguishing features of the
original savage were fierceness, obstinate will, and bloody determina-
tion, leading to barbarous and disgusting practices. Their women
were worse than slaves, the extent of their labor was more than they
could bear. With the stone ax, the bone awl, the clay pot, the rib
laiife, and all their primitive tools, even their most pressing wants
were met with great difficulty. The process of procuring fuel alone
622 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ann. 4S
was one of much toil, and occupied most of the time of one female
to a lodge. On account of their inadequate instruments for dressing
hides their clothing was wretched, often insufficient to protect from
cold or to cover with decency.
Commerce has changed all this by facilitating their means, and the
character of their women has risen from a state of intolerable slav-
ery to one of ordinary labor scarcely more servile than that of
Eurojjean female operatives. Their persons are cleanly dressed,
combed, and adorned, a desire to appear genteel is manifested, a
neatness in their lodges and domestic arrangements perceptible, prov-
ing the transfer of their time and ideas to these ends from those of
original filth and savage recklessness.
In former times the trade was carried on in their different camps
by paying a number of desperate men (Indians) to restrain the
populace from robbing the trader. This force was effective and nec-
essary at the time, because the wants of the Indians were so numerous
and pressing, their cupidity so great, that it was impossible for the
trader publicly to display his goods or deal with them on anything
like fair terms. And the Indians thus emplo3'ed considered it an
honorable station; it flattered their pride to rely for protection on
their bravery, and no robberies could be committed nor the traders
insulted without killing these men at the door of the lodge, which was
never attempted. This gave rise to a body of men called soldiers,
and the power first invested in them by the traders formed a nucleus
around which collected a superior and coercive force, which, in the
course of time, was applied to their own civil organization, producing
order in their government, unity of action, and rendering effective the
decisions by council.
The original natural authority was centered in the chiefs of small
bands, supported only by their family connectixans, who could not
or would not enforce decrees for general welfare nor interfere in
any public differences not touching their private interests. Power
being thus confined and circumscribed, separations into small camps
took place and minor subdivisions into heads of families, resembling
in this elementary form of government that of the ancient patriarchs
who as their interests jarred or covetousness increased made war
upon each other and were insufficient for any general purpose.
But when the body of soldiers was established and their efforts
united to support the chief and council, they soon collected in large
bands, from two to four or six hundred lodges each, entered into
effective measures of defense from the surrounding tribes, regulated
their hunts to advantage, and by this consolidation of interest ex-
tinguished the principal sources of private discord. This was a
great step in advancement produced by the traders and their com-
DE.viG] THE ASSINIBOIX 623
merce, for through the chief and council as the organ of public
opinion and soldiers as its su23port the nation could be spoken to,
their interest consulted, their feelings known, and the mass made to
advance toward a further point of improvement.
Property by means of commerce having been acquired, rates of
exchanges established, and hunting operations enlarged and facili-
tated, other things besides scalps became valuable in the eyes of the
Indians. Each having something to lose, perceived the necessity
of respecting the rights of others, giving rise to a spirit of com-
promise in difficidties, so that arms were less resorted to in settling
disputes, payment in most cases superseding that ancient and bar-
barous custom; also they evinced a disposition to aid each other in
times of need, which minor obligations bound still closer their
hitherto feeble bonds of society.
These were some of the effects of the introduction of commerce.
A still further improvement is visible in their expansion of ideas
arising from association with white traders, exhibited in their amelio-
ration of manners, desire for knowledge, doubts of their own super-
stitions, increase of their vocabulary and modes for expressing
thought, reason supplying the place of passion, and the general use-
fulness of the whole, resulting in their minds having been made
capable of comprehending religious or scientific instruction and
their time and talents to be applied to either their moral or spiritual
welfare.
This is the point to which these wild tribes are supposed by us to
have arrived, but no further. Their future condition depends more
upon their white allies than themselves. Traders have instilled edu-
cation enough to serve their purposes and let them alone. It would
be inexpedient for them to do moi-e.
It is also apparent, if their present attainments be not improved
upon by those in power, that they must recede, and in case of a dis-
continuance of trade or a wor.se influx of whites, their now to them
useful organization must dissolve. In this event they must become'
more miserable than at first, because the desires and necessities in-
duced by their partial elevation can not be satisfied from their
original resources, these having been lost and abandoned during their
advancement, consequently their present supjjort withdrawn, their
hunting ruined, distress, famine, and dissolution as nations must
certainly follow.
If they are left in their present condition until the tide of emigra-
tion has reached their as yet undisturbed hunting grounds, and the
green plains, now covered with multitudes of buffalo, shall be strewn
with innumerable grog shops, occupied by nests of gamblers, and
hordes of outlaws, bringing with their personal vices a host of in-
624 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ann. 40
fectious diseases, where will the poor Indian be then ? Bitter would
and should be the reflections of our great national reformers that
they had not in time stretched out a saving arm to the aborigines.
It may be said, point out a way, state some feasible plan. Here-
tofore our policy has been lame, and our efforts retarded by our being
but partially informed as to their capacity of improvement, or the
practicability of bettering their condition.
To all this we would answer the course to be pursued is plain and
can be easily gathered from these pages, which, like other productions
of the kind, most probabty will be thrown aside as soon as read or
disbelieved because the facts recorded do not coincide with precon-
ceived notions of Indian character.
We do not feel ourselves called upon by the inquiry to jiresent a
plan of operations, neither do we feel capable of instructing superior
men. A plain statement of facts is sought and herein presented,
though more could have been done had it been requested. Extensive
establishments having for their object the civilization of the Indians
have already been commenced with several nations within the bound-
aries of the United States and have met with success. Let others be
tried, adapting the means to the situation and necessities of the
roving tribes. A sudden revolution of feeling, an entire change in
their habits and occupations, can not immediately be expected, would
not be natural, neither would it be durable, but a gradual change
brought about in their present employments, by combining them with
pastoral and agricultural pursuits, a judicious introduction of me-
chanical arts, their superstitionsi carefully undermined and replaced
by moral truth, their temporal welfare consulted, and a certain chance
of subsistence presented ; these things being accomplished, the eyes of
the present grown generation would close in the rising prosiDerity of
their children.
We perceive in the closing remarks of the inquiry these words:
"In all questions where the interests of the tribes clash with those of
the persons whom you may consult, thei'e is much caution required."
Now. our personal interests and those of every trader are at direct
variance with any innovations in the present employments or
organization of the Indians. Any improvement in their condition
mentally or the introduction of other pursuits such as arts and agri-
culture, even the inculcation of the Christian religion, would immedi-
ately militate against the trade and unfit the Indians for being only
hunters or being regarded only as a source of profit. We are per-
fectly aware that the policy advised in these pages, if acted upon,
would effectually ruin the trade and with it our own personal interest
and influence in that capacity. All these things have been well con-
sidered and had they any effect would only have led to our remain-
DENiG] THE ASSINIBOIN 625
ing silent on the subject; but, havin<i; written, we prefer placing
things in their proper light, aiming at great general good, and thus
without further comment the whole is left in the hands of those for
whom it is intended.
Intermarriage with Whites
The praifie tribes liave not been much affected by intermarriages
with Europeans except the Cree. Most of the Red River settlement
of half-breeds are of Cree and Chippewa extraction, who though not
generally having the advantage of education, are, however, a bold,
hardy, and fearless people, invariably good-looking, active, and brave.
They unite hunting with agricultural operations but prefer the
former, the indisposition to work showing itself equally in the de-
scendant as in the original stock. Their parents and the Cree Nation
generally have been, if not benefited, much instructed by these people,
and are superior in intellectual acquirements to any of the other
tribes. The history of this settlement is no doubt well known to all,
so that we need not describe it here.
As far as these other tribes are concerned the only intermixture has
been of the fur traders and engagees of the fur company. Of these,
all that can afford it take their children to the States to be educated,
who usually make intelligent and respectable men. If it were not
for the jDopular jjrejudice existing, or if it were possible, we would
advise amalgamation of the races as the most efficient means for
saving the remnants of the Indian tribes.
Population
Regarding the comparative population of these tribes with the
years 1833 to 1854, the decrease is very great. Smallpox, cholera,
measles, and influenza, together with other diseases and wars, inci-
dental to the climate and their pursuits, have reduced the Sioux about
one-third, the Mandan three-fourths, the Arikara one-fifth, the As-
siniboin one-half, the Cree one-eighth, the Crows one-half, and the
Blackfeet one-third less than they were at the former period.
They — that is, from the Sioux up — are now slowly on the increase.
Language
To answer the queries on this head would require a volume of itself,
but the Assiniboin being the same or nearly the same as the Sioux,
and as the Sioux has already been translated into the English letters,
books published in it, and the same taught in schools on the Missis-
sippi, it is presumed that any and all answers to these queries can
be obtained by procuring the books printed in the Sioux language
626 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [eth. ANN. 46
and by examining tlieir manner of instruction. We have seen the
New Testament in that language, also several letters, and believe it
to be well adapted to the purpose of Christianity or general useful-
ness. Should, however, it be the desire of the department that ex-
tensive vocabularies be made out and explanations of their language
given, or should any other information regarding these tribes be
sought, we will at any time satisfy it on tliese topics, provided the
efforts now made for their instruction regarding the prairie tribes
meet with the success it is presumed to deserve.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The following biblingra]ihiral list of works Is submitted to enable the student
to verify and extend the work of Mr. Denig.
Bacqubville de la Pothekie, C. C. i-e Roy de la. Ilistoire de VAmerique Sep-
teutrionale. Tomes i-iv. Paris, 1722. (Same, Paris, 1753.)
Catlin, George. Illustrations of the manners, customs, and condition of the
North American Indians. Vols. i-ii. London, 1848.
[To be u.sed only with caution.]
Chittenden, N. M., and Richardson, A. T. Life, letters, and travels of Father
Pierre-Jean De Smet, S. J., 1801-1873. VoLs. i-iv. New York, 1905.
CouES, Elliott, ed. New light on the early history of the greater Northwest.
The manuscrijrt journals of Alexander Henry and of David Thompson,
1799-1814. Vols, i-iii. New York, 1807.
De Smet, Father Pierre-Jean. See Chittenden, H. M., and Richardson, A. T.
DoBSEY, George A., and Kroeber, A. L. Traditions of the Araiwho. (Field
Col. Mus. Pub. 81, Anthrop. ser. v(d. v, Chicago, 1903.)
DoESEY, J. Owen. A study of Siouan cults. (Eleventh Ann. Kept. Bur. Ethn..
pp. 351-544, Washington, 1894.)
Siouan sociology. (Fifteenth Ann. Kept. Bur. Ethn., ijp. 205-244,
"Washington. 1897.)
DOEBS, Arthur. An account of the countries adjoining to Hudson's Bay in
the north-west part of America. London, 1744.
Fletcher, Alice C. The Elk mystery or festival. Ogallala Sioux. (Kept.
Peabody Mus. Amer. Archaeol, and Ethn., vol. iii, pp. 276-288. Cambridge,
1881.)
Hae-thu-ska Society of the Omaha tribe. (Journ. Amer. Foik-Lore,
vol. V, pp. 135-144, Boston and New York, 1892. )
Franklin, John. Narrative of a journey to the shores of the Polar Sea.
Philadelphia, 1824.
Handbook op American Indians North of Mexico. Bur. Amer. ICthn., Bull. 30,
pts. 1 and 2. Washington, 1907-1910.
[The tribal and other articles in this work are arranged in alpha-
betical order.]
Hayden, F. V. On the ethnography and philology of the Indian tribes of the
Missouri Valley. (Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc, n. s. vol. xn, pt. 2, Phila-
delphia, 18G2.)
[Largely based on information supplied him by Edwin T. Denig.]
Henry, Alexander. Travels and adventures in Canada, and in the Indian
Territories, between the years 1760 and 1776. New York, 1809.
See also Coues, Elliott, ed.
Hind, Henry Yuel. Narrative of the Canadian Red River Exploring Expedi-
tion of 1857, and of the Assiniboine and Saskatchewan Exploring Expedi-
tion of 1858. Vols. i-n. London, 1860.
Jesuit Relations. Relations des Jesuites eontenant ce qui s'est passe de plus
remarquable dans les missions des peres de la Compagnie de Jesus dans
la Nouvelle-France. Embrassaut les aunees 1611—1672. Tomes, i-iii.
Quebec, 1858.
Jesuit Relations and allied documents. Travels and explorations of
the Jesuit missionaries in New France, 1610-1791. Reuben Gold
Thwaites, editor. Vols. i-Lxxiu. Cleveland, 1896-1901,
627
628 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kelset, Henkt. a journnl of a voyagp ami journey undertaken by Henry
Kelsey ... in anno 1691. With an Introduction by Arthur G. Doughty
and Chester Martin. In The Kelsey Papers, published by the Public
Archives of Canada, ..., Ottawa, 1929.
[He mentions " ye Stone Indians " and also has an "Account of these
Indians beliefs and superstitions," which seems to be the first sketch of
the life and customs of the Plains Indians.]
Kboebeb, Alfked L. Ethnology of the Gros Ventre. (Anthrop. Papers Amer.
Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. i, pt. 4, New York, 1908.)
The Arapaho. (Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. xviii, New York,
1902.)
See also Dorsey, Geo. A., and Kroeber.
Lewis, Meriwether, and Cl-^ek, Wm. Original journals of the Lewis and
Clark Expedition, 1S04-1S06. Reuben Gold Thwaites, editor. Vols.
i-vni, New York, 1904-1905.
La Potherie. See Bacqueville ile la Potherie.
Long, Johx. Voyages and travels of an Indian interpreter and trader, de-
scriliing the manners and customs of, the North American Indians. Lon-
don, 1791.
LowiE, Robert H. The Assiniboine. (Anthr<ip. Papers Amor. Mas. Nat. Hist.,
vol. IV, pt. 1, New York, 1909.)
Margry. Pierre. Decouvertes et etablissements des Francais dans fouest et
dans le sud de I'Amerique Septentrionale (1614—1754). Memoires et
documents originaux. Pts. i— vi. Paris, 1875—1880.
Maximilian, Alex. P., Prinz zu Wied. Reise in das iunere Nord-America in
den Jahren 1832 bis 1834. B. i-ii. Coblenz, 1839-1841.
MooNBY. James. Mescal plant and ceremony. (Therapeutic Gazette, 3d ser.,
vol. XII, Detroit, 1896.)
Calendar history of the Kiowa Indians. (Seventeenth Ann. Rept. Bur.
Amer. Ethn., pt. 1, Washington, 1898.)
The Ghost-dance religion and the Sioux outbreak of 1890. (Fourteenth
Ann. Rept. Bur. Ethn., pt. 2, Washington, 1896.)
Perrot, Nicolas. Memoire sur les Moeurs, Coustumes et Relligion des Sauvages
de I'Amerique Septentrionale, publie pour la premiere fois par le R. P. J.
Tailhan. Leipzig et Paris, 1864.
Radissok, Peter Esprit. Voyages of Peter Esprit Radisson ... with his-
torical illustrations and an introduction by Gideon D. Scull. Publ.
Prince Society. Boston, 1885.
Schoolcraft, Henry R. Historical and statistical information, respecting the
history, condition, and prospects of the Indian tribes of the United States.
Pts. i-vi. Philadelphia. 1851-1857.
(In his fourth volume he publishes Denig's Assiuiboin vocabulary.]
Scull, Gideon D. See Radisson, Peter Esprit.
Thwaites. Reuben Gold, ed. Early western travels 1748—1846. Vols, i— xxxn.
Cleveland, 1904-1907.
Wissler, Ci-ark. The Bla<kfoot Indians. (Annual Archaeol. Rept. for 1905.
App. Rept. Min. Ed. Ont., pp. 162-178, Toronto, 1906.)
manuscript
KuRz, Frederick. Journal. Copy of translation in the archives of the Bureau
of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution. 1,076 typewritten pages
with 125 drawings.
INDEX
Page
Abbes, H -. 367
Abbott, C. C 332,333,353
Abortion, means used to produce 521
Academy of Sciences Museum 235
Accounts, method of keeping _, 420-421
Acknowledgments 31
Adaptations, cranial _ -.. 359
Adoption or CAPTIVES _ 552
Adultery, punishment of _ 482
See also Infideuty.
Advancement of tribes.. 579-580
Adzes —
ivory 135, 149
"jade" - -. 88,96
stone - .-- 100,134,135,173
Affinities, Eskimo —
Asiatic- 214-227,240,250,363.365
with Indian ... 214, 240, 250, 259, 356-358, 361, 365
with Paleolithic man in Europe 357
Affinities, of fossil ivory culture 174 175
Afoonak - 184
Age, among Eskimo 213-227
Aged people, treatment of 422. 443^44, 576-577
Agiak _ _ .- 194
Agiukchuk 193
Aglemute, Oglemute, crania 235
Agnes, The 68.71,73,75
Agricultural College, Fairbanks, collec-
tions - 38
Agriculture—
among the Missouri Indians 463-464
claim to land based on 477
need of 543
of the Plainstribes - 407
Aiaktauk -. 186
AiviLiK, Eskimo 230
Akhiok 186
Akiak _ -. 192
Akitan 123
Alakanuk 199
Alaska —
archeology 33,148, 149,165
cession of, to U. S 127
Eskimo 227
inland, Eskimo 361
officials of, aid by 31
origin of Eskimo in 330,340-347,366
peopling of - 81
reports on explorations in 128
route for migrationsfrom Asia. -_ _. 29
Alaska Peninsula —
crania 235
old sites 184, 186. 187, 188
Alaska, southwestern, crania 257,
259, 262, 263. 365
facial 266
nose - - 268, 270
.\LASKA. western— Page
anthropology 181
archeology 181
Coast Pilots.. _ 179
crania, coast 364
early maps 176-178
geographic dictionary 178, 181
Alcoholism _ 42,51,133,362
Aleut Bay (B. C.)—
Indians of. 32
physical type of 33
Aleutian Islands 177,238,361
work in , 32
Aleuts _ 122,364
crania of _ 234,236
different from Eskimo 238
extension 184
Allen, H. T.. 124, 128
Allen, Jim... 31, 105, 106, 112, 172, 181, 206
Alveolar angle, Eskimo 284
America —
origin of Eskimo in 330,340-347,356
peopling of... _ _ 29
peopling of, from Asia _ 175
peopling of, through Alaska 181
American cultures, atTmities, origin. 175
American explorations, Yukon.. 128
American Fur Company, traders of 621
American Museum of Natural History.. 166,
229, 235, 255
Amputation, practice of 427-428
Anchorage, town of.. 36
Anderson, C. M 100
Angles, Eskimo —
facial.. 285
mandibular 305
Anilukhtakpak, Aninulykhtyk-pak 127,
129, 130, 131
Animal figures, on knife handles, affinities
of.. 175
Animal LIFE, of the upper Missouri 410-112
Animal symbols, use of 412
Animals—
belief concerning 487
custom regarding killing of 412
destruction of skeletal remains by 363
list of, used for food 683
Aniyak _ 204,205
ANNU^TIE3, distribution of 473
Anogok 193
ANTELOPE, bunting of 635
.\NTHROPOLOGY, PHYSICAL—
western Eskimo, notes on 213-228, 228-250
Yukon 149
Anthropom etry^
St. Lawrence Island 30,238,251,252
Tanana 44
western Eskimo _ 228, 238 et seq., 250
629
630
INDEX
Anthropometry— Continued. Page
Yukon 25Q
Antiqoties, absence of 413,414
Antiquity—
of Eskimo 159, 181, 238
of man, Alaska. 362
of remains, Little Diomedc 95
of Yukon Indians 83
Antik _ 136, 142, 149, 151, 177
discovery.. __ 127
Eskimoid features.. S6, 59
Influenza 133
lecture 59
Mission school 56
people 67
population 130,131,132,134
sickness at 56
stability of village 59
stop at 56
Anvik ErvEK—
fisb- 60
remains sg
Apache, Eskimoid features among 82
ApKHTJN Pass 127
APOKAK 191
Apoon Pass. 195
Archeological specimens —
donated by Thomas Berryman 99
donated by George Gosbaw 98
donated by Merle LaVoy 102
donated by Lomen Bros 117
placed on deposit 115
Archeology of Alaska. 33, 84, 88. 101, 102, 181, 149
Barrow... 166, 206
Bering Sea.. 168
Bonasila 142, 144
Burchell's 46
Eevalina 100,204
Kotzebue 100
Little Diomede 95
"mounds "near Barrow 319
Point Hope 102, 205, 206
St. Lawrence Island... 210
St. Michael Island 17O
Seward Peninsula 202
Shishmaref 202
Tanana 43
Wainwright 106
Wales 93, 197
western Eskimo region 165, 167, 362, 363, 366
workmanship 173
Yukon... 73,81,84,129,134,136,144
Arctic Circle 100
Arctic Coast —
archeology 32
old sites 203
Arctic Eskimo, northern. 227,250,357
crania 257, 260, 261, 262, 263, 364
facial 266
nose 208
Arikara —
migration of 405
pottery of 413
Arm stretch —
Eskimo 239
western Eskimo 251
Page
Armstrong, 218 219
Army Medical Museum. 235
AROLIK igj
Arrow and bow, used in buffalo hunting... 642
Arrow points, ivory —
below Paimutc 67
Bonasila.... gO, 135
Eskimo territory 173
Ghost Creek 53
Arrow polnts, stone 173
Arrows, game played with 570
Art, curvilinear —
Bering Sea 174
Eskimo. 363
fossU ivory _ 362,363
Paleohthic, of Europe, resemblances to
that of Bering Sea 175
AsnrvAK _ _ 137
Asia —
cultural afflnities with Alaska 175
hving remnants in, of stocks that peopled
-America 29
origin of Eskimo in 330, 333-339, 356, 359, 361
Asiatic —
afflnities of western Eskimo 214-227.240,250
American connections 197
cultures, mfluence of. 145, 146, 173
Eskimo 226,234.237,361,364
Asiatic Coast, northeastern —
archeology... 88,363
connections with America 96
"ania 254,257,259,364
fossil ivory culture ._ 174
migration from, inevitable 93,96
sites 168, 169, 170, 171, 210
visibility of. _ 93 gg
visits to, from St. Lawrence Island 97
Asiatics, visits of, to America 96,97
ASKDJUK... 170,194
AsMUSSEN, P 367
.Assimilation, by the tundra-
of remains 77
of skeletal remains 79
97, 111, 118, 136, 172, 184, 195
AssiNiBoiN Indians —
advancement of.. 579-580
attitude of, toward debts 475
character of 459
characteristics of. 397,468
discussion of method of dealing with... 470-474
etymologic interpretations of the name . . 381
intellectual capacity of 593-602
intertribal relations of 403^04
names of. 396
origin of.. _. 395
progress of 620-623
strength of, compared with white man's . 529
territory occupied fjy 396-397
traditional origin of 3S2
Athapascan stone ax 147
ATLAS 159
Atnik 200, 208
Atonement, no conception of 490
Audubon, a.ssisted by Denig 381
Auk Indlins, southeastern -Uaska 33
INDEX
631
Page
AxiK Point, Indian remains 33
AuKiGNACiAN, affinities with Eskimo, Indian. 357
Axes —
doubIe-«dged 82,135,147-149
Esidmo 67,69,82,87
ivory.., 149
jadeite, near Barrow,. _ 319
on the YuJion, at Burehell's 46
Ruby 48
stone, Anchorage, Chitna,,, 148
Tanana_ 43
YuJion 134, 135. 145, 146, 147, 148
AZACHAC.IAG 200
AZACHAGIAK 197
AziAG, AziAK, Sledge Island 89, 197,200
AiUGS - - 89
Backlund, Charles 75
Bad Animal, Assiniboin war leader 402
Baelz, E.. 367
Baeb, - 334
Bajtin Land —
basiofacial diameters 280. 281
crania 257,260,262,263.264
Esliimo 328
facial 266
facial angles 2S5
nose 268, 270
Baker Creek _, _ _, 126
Baker, Marcus , ,, 178,181,184
Baldwin, Rev .,, 31,87,90,172,175,181
Ball game, described 665-666
Bancroft, H 150,218
Band, composition of 431
Banks, cutting of, by streams ,, 136
Barnard, Lieutenant, 128
Barrick, Gr-ice P 70
Barrow 106, 108, 110, 111, 166, 169.209
archeology : 166, 173
burials 183
Esliimo.,.- 228
"motmds" 166,206,257
slieletal remains of , 317,323,327,328
trip to.,, 30
Barrow crania 254, 257, 258, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264
basiofacial diameters 279-282
facial , 266
facial angles 285
means, 286
nose, 268, 270
Barter Island 206
archeology 123
Barter, native ,. 91, 93, 102, 103, 145
Point Hope.... 102
Bartlett, R., Capt 297
Basketry, Indian., 36.83
Battlefield, Chukchee-Eskimo 86, 117
Bauer, M 367
Beaches, archeological remains on 172
Beads—
Russian glass 61, 136, 173,363
use of. 590
Bear—
claws of, worn as necklace 553
dead, invocations to 499-500
killing of , 637-538
meat of 105
polar 104,105
Page
Bear, The, revenue cutter - 30,
86, 88, 90, 91, 104, 112, 117, 119, 120, 123, 172
Beard —
extraction of 593
western Eskimo 213-227,249
Beauty—
Eskimo..., 107, 213
Indian, Yukon 151
native children 59
Beaver, trapping of 411, .538
Beechey, F. W 168,205,214,219,228
Behavior, western Eskimo ,,, 92,
94, 107, 134, 213-228, 240, 250
Beuefs-
concerning animals 487
concerning astronomy,,, 414-418
concerning crime , 479-483
concerning future life 418
concerning Great Spirit 397
concerning prehistoric animals 412
concerning territorial rights 476-478
concerning the earth , 406
Belkofski., 189
Bell, E , 219
Berg. H 31,104,108,113,118,119,120,123,172
Bering, Capt. 1. 1, (or V.), 209
Bering Sea—
amphitheater of migrations from Asia . 93, 95, 96
archeology , 144,168,363,366
crania , 260,364,365
islands 255
Bering Sea Eskimo , 227,359
home of , 238
Bering Strait —
crania , 233
Eskimo , ,. 225, 226, 227
Bernard, Joe 38,167,211
Berries - 116
Berrtman, TH0M.4.S, 31,98,99, 167
Bessels, E, 367
Bethel ,,, 192
Betsch, C,,., , 31,70-72,170
Betting, on races 566
Big Lake, Yulton Delta, Eskimo, 226,227
Billings, J., Capt., map 176
Bimiut. 198
Biological Survey, explorations of, in
Alaska , 29
BmCH BARK—
canoe., 55
dishes ,, 37,83,136,170
in burials 63, 70
in houses 82
objects of 142, 170, 173
Birds—
game , 91,94,96,110
list of, eaten by Indians 583
with burials.. - 115
Birket-Smith, K 331
Bishops Rock 52
Black root, medicinal use of 425-426
Blackfeet, migration of 405-406
Bleeding, practice of 426
Blood, Eskimo 366
Blossom, H. M. S „ 231
Blue Thunder, Assiniboin warrior 402
Bluff 196
632
INDEX
Page
BlTTMENBACH, J. F 330, 333, 334, 367
Boas, F_ 150, 227, 228, 229, 231,
236, 237, 256, 258, 331, 333, 346, 347, 357, 367
Boats—
breakdown - 71
Eskimo _ --- 91
graveyard of, off Barrow 108
Hamilton-St. Michael 79-80
Holy Cross-Paimute 65
need of one's own for exploration 80, 86, 181
Nenana-Tanana- 39
Nulato-Kaltag— 54
river 55
Russian Mission to St. Michael 68,71
St. Michael-Nome. 84,83
Tanana-Nulato 45
umiaks _ 91
Body painting, for the dance. 569,662
Body proportions —
Eskimo 358,364
western Eskimo 213-228,240
Yukon Indians 151
BOJOKAS, V..-- 2.54,2.59.330,333 367
work in northeastern Asia.- 30
BONASILA 60,61,
62, 63, 64, 81, 82, 83, 134, 135, 142, 144, 153, 154
skeletal remains of 156-160
Bones—
animal, Bonasila _ 142
fossilized 60,142,167
implements of 170 173
long 156-160,163-16,5,326
of prehistoric animals 4U-412
of the dead, reinterred 574-675
pathological 109
"BONEYARD," between Tanana and Ruby.. 46.47
EOULE, MarCELLIN 332,333,350
Bow AND ARROW, USe Of. 542,555
BowL GAME, description of 567-569
Boxes, burial 63
painted, Bonasila, Ghost Creek _. 63
southeastern Alaska 33,64
Unalaklik 64
Yukon 138
Boys, Assiniboin, characteristics of_ 444
Brain, Eskimo 278, 299, .368
Brant, Pete 119, 120, 122
Bravery, exhibition of 650
Braves' dance, described 658-560
Brinton, D. G - 329,330.367
Bristol Bay 170, 190
crania 2.54. 2.59
British Columbia, Indians 32, 33
Bboca, P 367
Brooks, A. H - 124, 126, 128
Brower, Charles D — 31,
32, HI, 123, 167, 172, 181, 206, 318
Brown, R 331,332,333.338,344,367
Bbownell, 219
BucKLAND River 203
Buckley, John _ 33
Bdcknell River, old sites 202
Buffalo—
as food.. 581-.582
discussion of destruction of 460-462
hunting of 530-636
importance of. 410-411
Buffalo— Continued. Pago
parts of, eaten raw 681
See also Game; Httnting.
Bulkley, Charles S. 128
Bulls' dance, described 862
Bull's Dry Bones, doctor and soothsayer.. 422
Bunnell, C. E 31,38
Burchell's 46
Bureau of American Ethnology, work in
Alaska 30
Burial boxes, painting of 64
See also Bo.xes.
Burial cu!9toms 670-576
Burial grounds—
Barrow 206
East Cape. 211
general 172
Nook 197
Pastolik 195
preference, Yukon 68
western Eskimo 183
Burial mounds, absence of 573
Burials —
above ground 183
assimilation of, by tundra. 77,79
Auk Point 33
Barrow Ill
Bonasila... 60,61,63
Burchell's. 46
burial bo.xes 183
deep, of recent objects 65,67. 169
despoiling of... 63,64
Eklutna.. 38
Ghost Creek 63, 64
Qreyling River 68
in houses 183, 364
in lodge 673
in rocks. 183
in sitting position 673,574
Kaltag (above) 55
Kotlik (near) 75
Little Dioniede 95
location of 183
Meyer's (below)... 60
"mounds" near Barrow 319
nature of 55,58,61,63,77,90
Nulato (below). 54
objects accompanying 77
of Eskimo children --- 77
on hilltop... 672
orientation in 672,673
Pastolik 76,78
Point Hope 102
Ruby (near) 49,53
scaffold or tree 493, 671, 572, 574
self 184
Seward Peninsula 90
Shinerara 109
surface 363
Yukon Eskimo 83
Yukon, location of. 138
See also Graves.
BURKITT, M. C 332,333,351
Buxton, L. H. D 269
Calf (leg), in western Eskimo 246,247,263
Calico, piece of, buried deep 65
Calumet, ceremonial use of 446-447
INDEX
633
Page
CAMEHON, J 236,237,313
Oamp —
Indian life in _ 608-510
organization of 440-446
Camps, native, Yukon 40,46,53,130
summer __ 182
Canada National Museum ._ 255
Canadian Arctic Expedition 236
Canine fossae, Eskimo .._ _.. 264
Cannibalism, in time of famine 523,584
Canoe Indians, an Assiniboin band __. 430
Canoes —
birch-bark, on the Yukon 55,83
use of 679
Cantwell River _.. 125
Capacity, INTELLECTUAL, of the Indian 693-602
Cape Nomecrania _ 257,262,263
basiofacial diamct-rs _. 279-282
dental arch 276
facial 266
facial angles 285
means 286
nose 268,270
orbits 274
Cape Nome sites _ 90
Cape Prince of Wales. See Wales.
Capes—
Belcher 169
Blossom _ _. 204
Chibukak 91
Denbigh 196.217
Erusenstern. _ 99,204
Lisburne, Eskimo _ 215
Lisburne, skull _ 232, 233
lombard _ 105
Nome 197
Nome, sites near 90
Prince of Wales 93. 197
Riley 119
Rodney _ _ _ 198
Romanzof 190. 195
Eomanzof, Eskimo _ 225
Smythe (Barrow) Eskimo 228
Stephens 126,127,195
Thompson, Esliimo 228
Vancouver, Eskimo _ 225,226
Wankarem 168,170,171,211
Wooley _.. 90, 197
Captlves, treatment of 551,552,553
Case, L 234
Carter-Blake, _._ _ 348
Carting, ivory, bone _ _._ 170
Castner, J. C 124,125
Catamenial customs _ 524
Caves 182
Celts- _ _. 145, 146
Census—
of Alaska natives.— 178,181
United States 322
Yukon 132,133
Central Eskimo 359
Cephalic Inde.x, western Eskimo 229
Ceremonial objects, of ivory 173
Chageluk, census _ 132
Chajmiut... 196,200
Chalit _ 193
88253°— H. Doc. 90, 71-1 41
Page
Chamberlain, A. F _._ 329.333.331.346.367
Chance, Sylvester. 31,99,114, 172. 181,204
Chapman, Dr. J. W 31..56.60
Character, of the Indian 693-602
Charcoal, deep 67
Charlevoix. 329
Charuer, C. V. L 367
Charms —
animal sjTnbols used as _ 412
belief in '... 495
Chase, Dr. William 35
Chastity—
attitude toward violation of _ 482
of captives, violation of 653
See ttUo Adultery; Virginity.
Cheguugh 176
Chemical pecuuarities, Eskimo 366
Chest, in western Eskimo 244,249,253
Chibukak 210
Chichinak 193
Chiefs —
authority of.. 622
duties of 431-432,441
5«e n/so Head chief; War chief.
Chieftainship —
settlement of 432-433,435
succession in 449
Chignik 188
Child bearing, age of 513
CmLDBiETH, customs connected with.. 429,516-517
Children—
behavior of 620
care of. 444
correction of 620
customs concerning 619
Eskimo 37,96
Eskimo, crania 294-299,310
grief over loss of 673
Indian, Eskimo, Yukon.. 161
male, most desirable. 521
mortality among 613
native, at Anvik 59
orphan, care of 576
torture of, as captives.. 551, 552
western Eskimo, notes 213,227
Chilh-ik 204
Chinese —
resemblance of British Columbia Indians
to 33
resemblance of, to Indians 36
Chinig 1%, 200
Chistiakof, P. E 126
Chitnak 212
Chiukak 196,200
Choris, Louis 219,231
Christy, H 333,370
Chukchee —
affinities with Eskimo 365
attempt at Kaltag 65
attempted invasion of Seward Peninsula. 86,
117, 118
Eskimo battlefield 86
houses W9
measurements... __ 259
mixture with Eskimo 226
trading with American natives 96-97
634
INDEX
Page
ChukCHEE CRANU 254, 257, 259, 262. 2fi3
basiofacial diameter _ 279-282
facial 266
facial angles -. 285
means 286
nose .-. 268,270
Chukchee Pentnsula 177,238,361
old sites.. 210,213
skulls.. 231,232,234,237
Civilization—
Eskimo. 92,181,366
Yukon 133
Clan totems, absence of 435
Clans, of the Upper Missouri Indians 434-435
Clarke, H. E 48
Cleanliness, native houses, Savonga 92
CUMATE—
influence of, on nose breadth.. 242,267,268,269
ofthe Upper Missouri 410
Clothing—
cost of 685-588
decorated with hair 560
made of skins 504,506
of men. 685-586
ofthe Assiniboin 464-465,584-690
of women 687-588
renewal of 588
worn while sleeping 590
See also Costumes.
Clubs, stone heads of. 134, 135, 148
Coast Pilots of Alaska 179
Coast, western Alaskan, crania 264,256
Cochran, Capt. C. S 31,86,117,122, 172
Cold (weather) 62,66,
69, 72, 73, 75, 96, 100, 101, 103, 104, 105, 106, 108
Cold Bat. 188
Collections, archeological 88
transportation of 62, 84, 123
Collie. A 231
Collins, Henry B., jr 161, 164,
174, 210, 238, 247, 254, 260, 295, 296, 324
Color 364
Indian, Eskimo, Yukon - 151. 161
western Eskimo .■ 213-228
Columbia Fur Company, traders of 621
COLVILLE ElVER 206.221
Eskimo... 361
Comer, O .--. 297
Commerce, etfcct of, on Indian 464, 465, 621-623
See also Trade; Traders.
Communications, between Asia and America. 93,
96,97
Conjurors. See Doctors,
Connections, between Asiatics and Ameri-
cans.- 197
Contracted rosiTioN, in burials —
Bonasila.. 61
Ghost Creek 63
Pastolik 77
Cook, Capt. James. 213
discoveries, Norton Sound 126
Cook Inlet, ornate stone lamp.. 34
Cooking, methods of — 682
Copper 363
mask _ -- 34
plate 35
Page
Copper Eskimo 230
Cordova — •
Indian burials _ 35
Indians _ 36
Coronation Gulf, Eskimo 230
CORWIN, S. S.... 177,205,221
cruises of 29
COSNA 126
Costume —
of warriors. 548,553-554
worn at Bulls' dance 562
worn at Fox danc*. 661
worn at Soldiers' dance 563
Council, description of 436-440, 446-448
Council lodge, diagram of 437
Councils, discussion of.. 451
Counting, system of... 418-420
Coup, counting of 660
Courtship, customs of 610-611
Cradle boards, useof 619-520
Crania, Americana (Morton) 231
See also Skulls.
Cranial capacity-
western Eskimo.. 255, 258
Yukon Eskimo 163
Yukon Indians. 152, 163, 164
Cranial index—
in children (Eskimo) 298
module, western Eskimo 256, 256, 268
Cranz, David 330,333,367
Crazy Bear, Chief—
account of 401
made head chief 431
speech of 597-599
Creator, conception of. 486
Credit, among the Indians 459
Crime—
beliefs concerning 479-483
Eskimos 94
Indian conception of 483
punishment of 448,452.455
See also Retaliation.
Crossjacket Village 126
Crow dance, described 664
Crow Indians^
amputation practiced by 427
crime among 454
dress of 687,588
treatment by, of captives... 651,552
Cultural connections, Yukon Indian and
Eskimo 83
transmissions from Asia 175
Culture - 64,82,83
western Eskimo 363
Cutting of banks 136
Cutting tools 144
Dall, W. H 89,
124, 127, 128, 130, 132, 133, 150, 151, 152, 162,
166, 181, 216, 218, 219, 221, 232, 233, 234, 264,
266, 329, 330, 333, 336. 368.
exploration in Alaska 29
exploration in Aleutian Islands 32
painted burials 64
D.^nce.s—
at Tanana potlateh 43
description of 656-565
INDEX
635
Dances— Continued. Page
love making at _ 558
purpose served by 656,557,563,564-565
Danielli, J 306,309
Dates, readily lost 100. 108
Davis, J. Barnard. . . 218, 232, 235, 237, 258, 326, 368
Davis, Wm. H 322
DaWKINS, Boyd 333.347,349.368
Dawson, J. W.. 333,338,368
Dat-no-dat _ _ 96
"Dead" villages 134,136,137,142,168, 183
Deaths, causes of 478
See also Burul customs; Mourning
CUSTOMS.
Debts, payment of._ 459
Dechelette, J 332,333,351,368
Decoration —
of pottery, Yuison 135,147
See also Ornaments.
Deer, hunting of 536
Deering 203
Deformation, artificial, of skull 83.232,321
Demarcation, line of, between Indians and
Eskimo on the Yukon 57,
66, 67, 82, 127, 129, 134, 151
Dene 130
Denig, E. T.—
ancestry of 383-384
brief account of life of.. 380-381
character of. 382
Indian name of 386
tribes described by 379
Deniker, J 229,235,256
Dental arch —
Eskimo. 236. 264
Yukon Eskimo 162, 163
Yukon Indians... 152, 154, 155, 157, 275
Dentistry, among Eskimo 93
Depauw, 219
Designs —
curvilinear 174
Eskimo — 174
De Smet, Rev. G. I. —
acknowledgment by, to Denig _ 386
object of correspondence with 467
Destruction—
of cultural remains 88,89,90
ot human remains 97,111,181,363
of sites 136
Dictionary, Geographic, of Alaska 178, 181, 184
Dieriabln 127
DiOMEDE Islanders 87,88,96
DioMEDE Islands 117, 121
burials.. 95
crania... 256,259
dwellings 95
Eskimo... 226,365
fossil ivory culture 174
HrdliSka's trip to 30,87,93,94,96
"jade" adzes 88,96
Jenness's aid on 95
Jenness's work 32,95
map 212
old sites. 95,96
stone adzes 135
stone dwellings 172
209,210
Page
Diseases. 107, 130, 133, 134. 171
at Anvik. 56. 59
at Tauana.. 43
rarity of 425
Dishes —
clay 173
large wooden, used for burials of infants. 77
wooden, birch bark, Yukon 136
wooden, inlaid ornot. 69,71,83
Disposition. See Behaviok.
Divining dance, briefly described 564
Divining man —
application of the term 494
dress of 586
See also Doctors; Priests.
Divorce, right of __ 512
Doctoring. See Medicine.
Doctors—
activities of 443
character of 492
fear of 485
office of 492-493
payment to. 423, 424
See also Divining man; Priests.
Dogfish Village 69,81
Dogs... 40,43,
49, 50, 62, 73, 95, 103, 108, 109, 111, 114, 116. 319
ceremonial eating of 489,491
feast on, at soldiers' dance 663
Dolls—
ivory 78
of bark 170
Dreams—
beliefs concerning 494-495
symbols adopted after 412
Dress. See Clothing; Costumes.
Driftwood 182,183
use of, for burials 90
Drums, described .- 619
Dublin, L. I 322
Duck dance, described 562
Duckworth, W. L. H 230,
231, 256, 306, 307, 313, 326, 368
Dwellings-
Seward Peninsula 90
Yukon 46,58,60,82
See also Houses.
Dyestuffs, native 591
Eagle feathers —
badge of distinction. 449
value of 589
Eagle Harbor 185
Ears—
western Eskimo 215,249,2.52
Yukon Eskimo— 162
Yukon Indians 244
Earth, beliefs concerning the 414
Earth lodges, construction of 579
Earthquakes 66
East Cape 171
Eclipse, beliefs concerning 415
Education, discussion of need of 466-470
Eek... 192
Effigies, bone, ivory, stone 88, 173
Ekilik 190
Eklutna School 37
636
INDEX
Page
Ekogmute 218, 221
Ekpik _ 202
Ekuk... 190
Elephant Point, old sites 171
Eleutak. 199
Elk, hunting of 637
Elk horns, mound of 398
Elk teeth, value of 589
Elliot, C. P 333
Emelik 207
Engurh explorations, Yukon 128
Environmentalinfluences, on the Eskimo 365
Epidemics 107, 130, 133, 171
See also Smallpox.
Ermine skins, value of 689
Eskimo —
adaptation, diilerentiation, evolution 359,
364,365
admixture with Indians 58,
69, 82, 83, 156, 161-3, 250, 259, 268, 365
affinities with Asiatics. 240,250
affinities with Indians 240,
250, 259, 366. 357, 358, 361, 365
aid with skeletal remains. 103, 109,111. 113. 114
and Paleohthic man of Europe 175.331,347
anthropological groups 274
antiquity 169. 181, 238
arrow points, ivory 67, 135, 173
arm stretch - 229
Asiatic 210,226,234.237,361.364
Asiatic, crania 254,257,259,364
Asiatic, nose... 268
attitude toward skeletal remains 70,
76. 78, 97, 103, 109, 111, 113, 114, 184
axes, adzes 135
barter 91,93,102,103,145
bones, fear of _-_ 70
bones, long. 156, 160, 163, 164, 165, 326
boxes, burial, painting of 64
central 359
cephalic and cranial index 229
character, mentality, behavior 79,
83. 92, 94, 107, 134, 213-228. 240, 250
children 37,96
children's crania 294-299. 310
civilization 92.133,181.366
coining to America 359
conclusions as to _ _._ 358
contact with Indian 83
Coronation Gulf 230
cradle 361
crania 231
crania, average data in detail 286-293
crime, execution 94
dental arch. .- 162, 163. 236,264
digging up old sites 88, 102
dishes, wooden 69,71,77,83,136
disposition, happy 67
eastern, crania 232
evolution 168
excavatmg old sites 88.93.102,167
face 213-228, 229, 232-236, 241-242, 249, 261
fecundity... 107
Golovnin Bay 116
Greenland 227,230
Eskimo— Continued Page
habits 366
head form and size ._ 161-
163, 229, 239-240 249, 251, 359, 364
height sitting 229
homogeneity 358
Hudson Bay. 230,375
Indian mixture 69.250,259,268
Indianlike 69, 79.82,99, 107, 109, 134, 151, 161
intermarriage with whites. 102, 106, 111, 151,362
ivory carving _ 210
journeys 145
kind... 99
Kuskokwim 67, 99. 361
Mackenzie Eiver 229, 230
marriage.. 107
masks.. 84, 173, 175
measurements of 229,238
migrations 365
mix bloods 66. 99, 107, 111, 134
mixture with Indian 63, 69, 82, 8:1. 156,
161-163, 250, 259, 268, 367, 358, 359, 361-365
Mongol affinities 214-227,299
names. .__ 109
nose. 229, 234, 235, 236, 237,247-270
of Noatak River 229, 230
of Nome 89
of Savonga, clean 92
orbits 234, 235, 236, 237, 264, 270-274
origin 181,329,333-361,365
part of yellow -brown stem. _ 357
physical characteristics... 358,359,364
Point Barrow 215, 218, 226, 227, 230
Point Hope.... 226,230
population, density 132, 181
pottery 67, 69, 78, 95, 131, 146, 147, 173
purity _ 865
race unity or plurality.. - 3.56
St. Lawrence, civilized 92
settlements, selection of sites 182
shoulders 229
singing of. 107
Smith Sound. 230
stature. 213-228. 229, 230, 238, 316-317, 326, 359, 364
stone lamps, ornate 34, 55, 136, 173
the name 329
villages. Lower Yukon 67, 129, 132, 361
wars 86, 117, 118, 170, 171, 358
Eskimo, Alaskan, archeology. See .Archeology.
Eskimo, midwestem, crania -.- 364
basiofacial dimensions 278
dental arch 275
facial... 265
lower jaw ___ ,, 300
nose. 269
orbits 273
skeletal parts 314-317
Eskimo, northeastern 266,261
basiofacial diameters 278
crania 359
dental arch 275
facial. 266
lower jaw 300
nose. 269
orbits 273
INDEX
637
Page
Eskimo, northern or Arctic _. 227,
256, 257, 260, 261, 262
crania, basiofacial diameters _ 278
dental arch 275
facial 265
lower jaw 300
nose 269
orbits.. 273
Eskimo, northwestern, crania 261
basiofacial dimensions 278
dental arch 275
facial 265
lower jaw 300
nose 269
orbits.. 273
skeletal parts 314-317
Eskimo, southwestern, crania. 262,364
basiofacial dimensions.. 278
dental arch.. 275
facial parts 264-266
lower jaw 300
nose 269
orbits 273
skeletal parts 314-317
Eskimo, western —
affinities with Indians 316
alcoholism 362
anthropology 364
antiquity _._ 362
archeology. See Archeology.
children 362
civilization 362
crania .- 231, 254
crania of children 294
culture. _ 145
diseases 362
disposition 362
distribution 238
endurance, strength 362
eiploitation by, of old remains ._ 366
extension _.. 361
homogeneous - 364
intelligence, mentality, abilities 362
intermarriage among themselves 362
living, anthropometric data . . . 228-250, 251-2.53
living, measurements... 238
living, observations on 213, 228
living, physical characteristics 213-228
long bones 165,314
longevity... _ 362
mixture with Indians.. - 364,365
mixture with whites 362, 364,368
observations and measurements 364
physiological data 247,249
population 361,362
skeletal remains 163, 165
subdivisions 255
Eskimo, Yukon 83,145,161,238,361
crania 160,162,163
differences from northern and eastern 83
measurements of living =■... _ 162
skeletal remains 162, 163-165
stature 164
type 83
villages, population 132, 133, 134
ESKIMOGENIC CENTER 365
Page
EsKiMoiD FEATUEE3 in Alaska Indians 37,
43, 47, 62, 63, 54, 55, 66, 58, 59, 151
Europe—
origin of Eskimo in 331,347-351
Paleolithic, cultural affinities with Alaska 175
Evans, Mrs 116
Evolution, of Eskimo and his culture 168
Excavations —
Barrow 166,206,257
by the Eskimo 88,93, 102, 167
difficulties of, ui Alaska 173
Little Diomede 166
Wales 166
Exchange, no medium of 420
Explorations—
Alaska old sites, need of 89,93
English 123, 128
obstacles and difficulties of 118, 121
on the Yukon, American 128
Eussian 123, 127, 128
unfinished _ 129
Expression, facial, western Eskimo 249
Expressions, Alaskan, quaint 40
Eyes —
western Eskimo 213-228,243
Yukon Indians and Eskimo.. _ 161
Eyesight, acuteness of 527-528
Fables, of the Assiniboin 609-017
Face, cranial-
Eskimo 263-266, 358
in whites 266
western Eskimo, notes. 213-228,
232-236, 241, 242, 249, 251
Y'ukon Eskimo... 161, 163
Yukon Indians and crania 152,
153,156,157,264,266
Facial angles —
Eskimo 285
Indian 284,311
Facial painting—
for burial 570
for the dance 557, 563
for war 554
Fairbanks 38, 39
collections 168
Family life, of the Assiniboin 603-508
Famine, St. Lawrence Island 210
Fasting —
in time of scarcity 509
object of. 489-490
Father-in-law TABOO 503-504
Feasting, in time of plenty 509
Feathers, eagle —
a mark of rank 553
valueol 689
Feathers, use of, in pottery 58
Fecundity, Eskimo 107
Feet—
Eskimo 359
Indian 246
western Eskimo-. 215-227,246,249,253
Females, Lower Yukon, compared with
males 164
Femur 166, 159, 160, 164, 165
western Eskimo 314-317
Ferry, H.De 331,368
638
INDEX
Fetishes — Page
belief in 495
ivory 173
See also Charms.
Feuds, the result of murder 453
See also Eetauation; Ketenge.
FiGUTER, L 219
Figurines, fossil ivory 174
Filipinos, resemblance to Indians 36
Fire. See Forest fire.
Firearms-
importance of. __ _ 466
valued highly 555
See also Guns.
Fire-making, sticks 61, 136
First-who-Flies, account of 4OH02
Fish 51, 53, 65, 67, 69, 60, 91, 98. 110. 116
camps 69.66,67,98
camps, Tanana 126
traps and wheels 40,57
village, Lower Yukon 74
Fish Creek, ornate stone lamp 34
Fishing, among Upper Missouri Indians.. 544, 582
FUNT 173
Flory, H. 33
FIOWER, W. H. 233,330,332.333,338,368
Flute, use of 512
Fog.... 107, 115
Food —
animal, of the Upper Missouri Indian.. 581-682
of the Plains tribes.. 407-408
quantities of, consumed 609
Footraces, popularity of... 666
Eskimo.. 366
on the Yukon ___ 45,
61, 56, 58, 60, 64, 66, 67, 69, 70, 71, 78, 79, 86
FoRBDJ, V 368
Forehead —
Eskimo 358
western Eskimo 240,241,251
Yukon Indians and Eskimo 161
Forest fire—
at Anvik , 59
near Ruby 48.49
Fort Benton, a trading point 407
Fort Berthold, a trading point 407
Fort Clarke, a trading point.. 407
Fort Pierre, a trading point 407
Fort Union —
a trading point.. 407
described by Denig 381
Fort Yukon.. 128,130,132
Fobtymile, Indians 124
Fossil rvoRY CULTURE 87,
88, 146, 173, 174, 176, 202, 210, 363
affinities 174, 175
carving into beads, etc 210
distribution ___ 174
Eskimo 176
extension. 211
specimens 88, 89, 91,92. 93, 96, 100, 109
trade in 87,88,89,91,93
FossiLizATioN, of bones, Bonasila _ 60, 142, 157
fossiuzed bones 134
Fossils—
at **boneyard" 47
Fairbanks 39
Page
FouDRAT, Miss E 322
Fox DANCE, described 661
Fox FARMS 202
Foxes 95,111
trapping of 638-539
France, Paleolithic, animal figures on
handles of poignards 175
Franklin, SirJ 219
FREDfcRlC, J 368
Fridolin, J 368
Friesell, H. E 313
Frizzi, E... 368
Frozen GKOtrND 41,
113, 168, 170, 173, 183, 210, 363
Fullerton, Mr. and Mrs.. 31,42
Fur trade. See Trade; Commerce.
Furs 91, 106
FiJRST, C. M.... 306,312,326,339,359,368,333
Future, of Yukon Indians 133
Future LIFE, belief in 418
Galena... 50,51,62
Gall, Dr. A. F 219,231
G.tLLATiN, Albert 332,333,340,361
Gambell 91,210
Gambling —
among women 569-570
games used for. 567-670
infatuation for _ 567
losses in 569
See also Betting.
Game—
abundance of 460
discussion of diminution of 460-^0
division of, after hunt 456, 531, 533-534, 539
laws regarding 456-456
of the upper Missouri 410-411
Games, of the Indians 666-566
Garber, Clark M 31,94, 197,201
Geikie, J a32,333
Geist, O. W... 167
Gens des Canots, an Assiniboin band 430
Gens des Filles, an Assiniboin band 430
Gens des Roches, an Assiniboin band 430
Gensdu Gauche, an Assiniboin band 430
Gens du Lac, an Assiniboin band 430
Gens du Nord, an Assiniboin band 430
Geodetic Survey, U. S 139
Geological Survey, U. S 128, 139
Oerland, G 368
Ghost Creek. 61,62,63,64,81,129
crania 153, 154
Ghosts, beliefs concerning 493,494
Gifts—
compensation expected for. 600
for treatment of the sick 424
return of 475
QlLMORE, C. W 68
Girls, Assiniboin, characteristics of 444
Olazunof, a 67,127,130,150
Gnats 86, 59, 60, 61, 62, 64, 66, 71, 72, 77, 78, 129
Goggles. 173
wooden, buried deep _ 169
Gold.... ...; 128
GOLOVNIN Bay 90, 115, 116, 196, 267, 260, 262, 263
crania 288,292,324
GoLOVNiN Point 205
INDEX
639
Page
GOLSOVA -- 199
Goodman, F. W 31,101,103,112,113,114
GooDNEWs Bat, old site __, 171
GOODP ASTER 125
Gordon, G. B., work in Alaska 30
OorjanoviC-Kramberger, K 308,312,368
GosHAW, Geo -__ 97
Government, Assiniboin ._ 435.445-446
See also Chiefs; Chieftainship; Tribal
organization.
Graah, W 369
Grantlt Harbor — -- 118
Graves —
character of, at PastoUk 77
despoiling of _ 64
not marked 572,576
Graveyards, recent—
Anvik - 56
Barrow 111
Koyukuk (below) _ 53
Meyer's (below) 50
Nulato - --- 54
Point Uope -.. .-. 102, 113
Russian Mission (below) ._ 72
Grazing, on the plains -- 408
Great Diomede Island.. 210
Great Fish River, Eskimo... 223
Greenland crania... 257. 258, 260, 261. 262. 263. 364
basiofacial diameters 280. 281
compared with St. Lawrence 298
dental arch ._ 276
facial 266
facial angles 286
lower jaw.,.. 301,306
means 286
nose 2m. 270
orbits 271-274
skulls 233
Greenland Eskimo 227,230
different from Yukon 83
homogeneous 358
like Eskimo of " mounds" near Barrow. 318, 323
Greenman, M. J - 318
Greetings, of the Indians 524
Greyung River—
crania 153
site 58.81
Gros Ventres —
ceremonial scarification of 490
self-torture of 522
women and children spared by 551
Gros Ventres of the Pr.urie —
migration of... 405
once -Vrapaho. 405
Grote, a. R 331,332.333.343.353.369
Ground, frozen _ 113, 168
Groups, anthropological, of the Eskimo 274
Gueeault, H.... - 369
Gulf of .\laska, archeology _ 32
Guns, manner of using 655
GURTLER, E. C 31,69,70
Gurtler's place 69,70
Haberer, K 369
Habitat, of the Assiniboin 406-410
Habits, Eskimo, changing 366
Hai-kees-kak-wee-lah, Assiniboin wife of
E. T. Denig 277
Hair— Page
cut of 83
Eskimo 161
symbolism of, when decorating clothing. 560
western Eskimo... 213-228
Hairdressing.. 654
Hambruch, P 369
Hammerstones, Yukon.. 134,144,146
Hamy, E. T... 234, 237, 330, 332, 338, 348, 350, 364, 371
Handgame, description of 569
Hands—
Eskimo 245,249,253,369
western Eskimo - 215-227
Yukon Indian 162, 245
Hansen, C. C 308, 312, 326, 333, 339, 369, 369
Hansen, S 230,231,306,307,312,369
Harper, first voyage on the Tanana 124
Harpoon beads, points, fossil ivory.. 174
Hawkes, E. W 227,236,237,254,306,313,369
Hatden, F. V. — •
Denig manuscript used by 380
Denig's vocabulary mentioned by 382
Hates, Dr... 218,219
Head CHIEF, duties of. - 441
Head deformation 83
Eskimo, Yukon 83
western Eskimo, notes _ 213-228
Head form—
and orbits 277
Indians, Yukon 161, 152, 163, 154
western Eskimo. .. 229, 239, 240, 249, 251, 369, 364
Yukon Eskimo 161, 162, 163
Head size —
Indians, Yukon 153, 164
western Eskimo 239,240,261
Yukon Eskimo J 62. 163
Healv, M. a 206
Hearne, - 218,219
Heidelberg jaw 303
Height—
Eskimo children — . 298
of head, western Eskimo... 240,249,251
sitting, Eskimo 239
sitting, western Eskimo 251
skull, western Eskimo - 261
Henry, V 333,369
Herendeen, village 189
HeRVe, G 332,333,360,369
Higsby, Mr... 120
Hoeven,J. v. d 369
HOGANS, resemblance to semisubterranean
dwellings in Alaska — 82
Holhberg, Alec 65
Holmes, 333
Holy Cross 61, 64, 66, 81, 127, 129, 130, 136, 141
Homogeneity, Eskimo -.- 358
Hooper, C. L.. 168, 171, 221, 322, 329
Hooper, W. H 214,219,369
Hooper Bay Eskimo 238,251,252
basiofacial diameters 280,281
crania 257,269,262,263,276
dental arch. 276
facial 266
facial angles. — 286
means 286
nose 268-270
orbits 274
640
INDEX
Hooper Bay Eskimo — Continued. Page
skeletal parts 314-317
skulls of children _ 295
Horseflies. 41,47
Horse races, trickery in 666
Horses—
a cause of warfare _ __. 470
disposal of, at owner's death 479
introduction of .,_ 412
sacrifice of... ___ 491
stolen by warparty.. 547
value of 471
wealth estimated by ^- 474
Hospitality, Indian —
affairs settled through _ 514
discussion of 513-515
self-interest in 515
Hot Springs, on the Tanana 41
fossils at... 42
Hotel, Nome 85, 86
HOTHAM Inlet. 226
Hough, Walter 148
work in Alaska - 30
Houses, native, modern, Savonga 92
Houses, native, semisubterranean —
Bonasila 142
character of, in general 172
Elephant Point. 171
Qolovnin Bay 116, 118
King Island 183
Nook.. 197
Point Hope 101
St. Michael.. 170
Seward Peninsula _ 90
stone 172
western and Asiatic Eskimo 168, 169, 182
Yukon 46,58,60,82,137
Housing, Eskimo. _ 366
HrduCka, a 144,
145, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 153, 154, 230, 237,
240, 295, 306, 308, 312, 313, 316, 333, 357, 369.
work in Alaska 30
Hudson Bay Company 124,128
custom of 694
ruse practiced by 695
Hudson Bay crania 257.259,260,261,262,263
basiofacial diameters 280,281
dental arch 276
facial 266
Jacial angles — 285
means - 286
nose 268,270
orbits.. 274
skulls of children 297
Hudson Bay Eskimo 230,367
Hudson Strait, Eskimo 219
Humerus 156, 158, 160, 164, 165
western Eskimo 314-317
Hunter —
dress of 686
precarious Life of - --. 604
Hunting —
instruction in _._ - 642
laws connected with... - - 455
season for 539
Hunting customs 444 445. 504, 530-543
Hydrophobia, remedy for 426
Page
Hyperostoses, mandibular. See Lower
jaw.
Ice 101, 104, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110
IcT Cape 231
Eskimo 227
skull. 232,237
Idols, use of 497
IGAG 195
IGAGIK 189
"Igloo" REMAINS. «See Baekow.
IKALIQVIGMIUT 69
IKALIK.. 196
IKALIKHVIG 200
IKATHI.OYGIAMIUT 69
IKOGMU'T, Ikogmute 127,132,170
ILIAMNA 187
Illness, in Yukon Indian camp 50
Illusions —
hearing 103
sight.. 73, 103
Immortality, belief in... 418,498-499
Implements, of the upper Missouri tribes.- . 39S,
414
Imueuk Basin , 197,202
INCA BONE, Yukon... 157
Indian agents, discussion of office oL 473-474
iNDLiN camps—
on Tanana River 40
below Koyukuk 53
below Tanana 46
Indian dances. See Dances.
iNDLiN Point, Siberia, crania. 254,
257, 259, 261, 262, 263
basiofacial diameters 279-282
dental arch 276
facial 266
facial angles 285
means 286
nose... 268,270
orbits 274
Indian schools, urgent need of 466-470
INDLAN SONG3. See SONGS.
INDIANUKE FEATURES, in Eskimo 69,
79, 82, 99, 107, 109, 134, 151, 161
INDUNS—
Alaskan, archeology 33
Alaskan, crania 233, 236
Alaskan, distribution 238
Alaskan, remains 238
Aleut Bay 32,33
American, affinities of 29
Anchorage _ 36
basiofacial diameters 277
calf.. 247
chest - 245
civilization 44
Cordova.. 36
dental arch 152-157,276
drink 42, 51
ear 244
Eskimoid, Yukon 134, 151, 161
facial 264,265,266
fi.cial angles 284,311
Fairbanks _ - 38
feet 248
Oalena 52
INDEX
641
Indians— Continued. ■^''S''
hands - 102,345
height 261
Juneau - 33
lower jaw 163, 157, 158, 300, 306
Middle Yukon 42
misture with Esliimo 58,69.82,
83, 166, 161, 163, 260, 269, 268, 357, 361, 365
mouth 243
Nenana 38
orbits 272
origin.. - - 360
physical characteristics of Alaslcan 33, 36, 37
Prince Rupert Bay - 33
Ruby 48
skeletal parts 315
skull size 266,256,2.57
Tanana - 124, 133
Tanana Mission and town - 42
Tanana River 40
See also Demarcation; Eskimo.
Indians, Yukon... 129-132, 133, 160, 162-165, 160, 161
comparison with Eskimo 227
crania 150, 152-166
living, anthropometry 160
long bones 166-160,163,165
migrations 83
mixture with Eskimo 151
physical characteristics 151. 161
type 83
ware 170
Industry, native, Yukon River 82
Infanticide, a common custom 521
Infideuty, punishment for 504-505
Influenza. 41,69, 133
INGER 194
INGREGAMIUT, below Paimute 67
Inheritance, among the Assiniboin. 478-479
INIKTIUK 207
INKALIKS 67, 130, 131, 150
INNOKO River, Indians 131
INNUIT. See Eskimo.
Inside Passage, scenery 32
INTELUGENCE, western Eskimo 240
See also Behavior.
INTERMARRIAGE, with WhitCS 102,
105, 111, 151, 625
IPNOT 206
Iron _. - 363
Iron Arrow Point, Chief, mention of 673
Islands, Y'ukon 126
Itanik 208
Ittege River 127
Ivory —
adze 135
carving - 210
doll 78
fossil, culture, specimens 87,
202, 210, 211, 362. 363. 366
fossil, implements of... 144, 146, 170, 173, 174, 175
fossil, trade in 87, 88, 89, 91, 92, 93, 173
fossil, utilization of 84
implements, Bonasila 135, 142, 144
points... 144,146,170,173
points, Bonasila - 60
spears, at Burchell's 46
Ivory— Continued. Page
walnLs, carved 117, 121
worked by Eskimo 84,87
Jackson, Sheldon 227
"Jacobs. "The, steamer 39,55
Jacobsen, P... 369
Jade, jadeite axes, etc 145, 146, 319, 362, 363
Kobuk 173
Kobuk, adzes 88
lamp... 99
Jones, Strahan 128,150
Japanese, resemblance of British Columbia
Indians to 33,36
Japanese Objects in Alaska 34
Jaw, lower. See Lower jaw.
JenNESS, D 96, 115, 117, 118, 166. 174,
197, 210. 228, 229, 230, 231, 333, 355, 363. 369
work of, in Alaska 32,94
Jette, Father J 31,61,62
JOCHELSON, W 165,339.369
work in Alaska and N. E. Asia 30, 32
johannsen, w 369
Joseph, Chief 44
Journeys, Eskimo. 145
Jugglery, fear inspired by 528
Juneau —
Indians 33
Museum 30, 33, 167
ornate stone lamp 34,65
Kaguyak 186
Kain 130
Kaiuh Slough 64
ornate stone lamp from 34,55
Eaiyuh-Khotana 130
Kajava, Y... 308,369
Kaliukluk 194
Kalm, 218
Kaltag, Khaltag 54, 131, 132, 133, 136, 139
burials - -- 65
changes of site - 59
Eskimoid features - - 55,56
remains.. 81
Kaluiak. .- 188
KanakaNAK 251,252
crania 286
Kanatak 188
Kangoot, Eskimo -•- 224
Kaniagmiuts 218
Karatuk 203
Karluk 186
Ka.shanak 189
Eashevaroff, A. P... 31,33,34
Kashigaluk 193
Kashims 171. 172. 182
"32" village.. 70,71,72,82,170
Kashunok, Kashdnuk... 194
crania 290
Kate, H. F. C. ten.... 370
Katmai - 187
Kaviak Peninsula, Eskimo 227
Kayak, influence of, on the Eskimo 369
Kayakshulik 208
Kay a YAK. 187
Keane, a. H .- 331.332,333,344,354.370
Keating, P 65
Keith, A._ 333,351,370
642
INDEX
Page
Kellt, J. A 224
Kenai Peninsula, ornate stone lamps 34
Kennicott, R _ _ 128
Ketchemeluk... 206
Kevauna 100,114,203-207
Khotana 127,130
KlALEGAK 212
KlANA _ 204
KlEMILE 176
KlUGMAK 204
Ejuk 208
KiLIMANTAVIC _ 208
KlLIUDA _ 185
KiNAK 192
King, Capt. James 213
King, Richaed _ 370
King Island 93, 982
King Islanders 87, 197'
knives with animal figures 175
visits to Nome in summer 97
KINIAK _ _. 189
Kinship, terms of _ __ 603
KiPNIAK 198
KlRBY, _ 219
KivAs, resemblance to kashims 82
KlVIDLOW _ 203
KIWALIK 203
Klaatsch, H 370
Klenkaklaiuh _ 64
Klutschak, H. W ._. 370
Knikdtak 196,200
Knives—
iron 61
ivory, with animal efBgies 175
St. Michael 170
steel, old form 51
Etone, on the Yukon, Ruby 48
stone, slate, Eskimo territory 173
Yukon 134. 145. 146
Knockers, stone _._ 134. 144, 146
Kobolunuk. _ _ 143
KOBUK River _ _ 204
crania _ 260.262.263.292
Eskimo 224,226,361
exploration 99, 173
"jade" _« 88
jadeite tools 319. 363
KoDiAK Island 177,181,232-23.5.236,237
children from _ 37
crania _ _ 286
old sites - 184,185
Koganei, Y _ 370
KOGIUNK 189
KOGOMIUT _ 198
Kokolak - 208
KOKOLIK 208
KOKRINES 47, 137
rehcs--- 4s
Koltma, fossil ivory culture 174
Kolyma River 211
kongioanak 193
KoNiAK, Kanlagmiut, skulls 232,234
KOOCHIK _ .._ 207
KOOT 194
KOTLIK 75,82. 164
crania 286,290
Page
KoTUK Point 199
KOTZEBUE.. 98,99,114,118,167,204
KOTZEBUE, O. V. 214,219,231
KOTZEBUE Sound 127
archeology 173,363
connections _ 319
Eskimo 214, 215. 219. 224, 227, 228
old sites _. 171, 203, 204
KOTZEBUE Sound skulls 232,
233. 237, 257, 260, 262, 263
basiofacial diameters 279,282
dental arch _ 276
facial _ 266
facial angles 285
means 286
nose 268,270
orbits 274
KOUKPAGMIUT 229
KOTUKUK RrvEE 52,127
Indians, massacre by , at Nulato 128
numbers _ 131,132
KoTUKUK Trail, from Burchell's 46
KoYUKUK Village _ 62,137,138
Koyukuk-Khotana 130
KRAUSE, a 331.333,343,370
KRIEGER, H. W.. 144.163,154,158,174
Krusenstern, Cape _ 99
KUALING 203
KUBOK 1. 204
KUHL, J 333,336,370
KuiUKUK 188
KUJUUK 188
KUKAK. 187
KUKUUAK.. 212
KULUKAK 251, 252, 266
KULULIN 208
KULVAGAVIK., _ 192
KuRZ, Frederick, Denig discussed by 384-386
KUSHUNUK... _ 170
KuSKOKWiM Bay 191,193
KuSKoKwiM River 177
archeology. 165
Eskimo. 225,361
explored 126, 127, 128
inquiries about 49
natives from, on the Yukon _ 67
old sites 171
portage to Yukon 127
KUSKOVAK. 192
KUT.. 195
KUTCHA-KUTCHIN 130, 160
KUTcmN 130
Kavuuonak 142
KVICHAK 190
KVIGAK 194
Kvigatluk _ 194
K\ig-mii"t _ 20O
Kviguk 199 '
Kvikhtag 196
kvinkhak _ 200
KwiouK 199
Kwikak 198
Kwikhpak _ 127
kwikluak _ 199
Kwikpak.. 199
KWINAK 191
INDEX
643
Labor— Page
attitude toward 553
division of 463, 505
Labradok, Eskimo 227,230,318,329
differences of, from Yukon 83
skeletal remains 323,364
Labrets 83
La Fortune, Father 31, 86, 87, 172, 181
LaLOY, 332,333,361,370
Lamps, clay 61
Bonasila. H7
Little Diomede.._ 95
ornate, stone 34. 55, 136, 173
Lance head?, ivory __ 173
Lance points, large, slate - 99
Land, rights to 476-478
Language, of the Assinibom 402, 625
Languages—
American, origin of, in Asia — 175
preservation of 405
Laeamie treaty-
ellectof -- 467
reference to... -._ --- 431
Larson Bay 186
Lartet, E 333.370
Latcham, R. E - 370
Latham, R. O 214.215,330,333,334,352.370
LaVoy, Merle 31,101.103.106.112.114.167
Lawrence, Harry 31.55,60.61.64.144.1.%
Lawrence, W 330,333,334
Le Bas Rouge, a branch of the Canoe In-
dians -- — 431
Le Chef do Tonnerre, speech of 600-602
Le Gros Francois, Assiniboin chief 395
Le Hon, 348
LECTtmEs, by Ales Hrdli6ka—
on the Alaskan trip 35,36,39.49,59.87
on the Bear... 104. 105
second, at Nome 115. 117
talk to natives, Wainwright 107
Unalaska 122
Ledouble, a 370
Legend, Assiniboin, 500-.503
Lewis and Clark expedition, mention of.. 395
Limbs, in western Eskimo _ 213-228,249
Linton, R - 236
Lips—
Eskimo... 161
western Eskimo 213-227
Liquor, bad effects of. 530
Lissauer, a 370
Litnik - 184
Little DiOMEDE 115,117,121,166,182.183.210
Little Diomede cranla.. 256,257,259,261,262,263
basiotacial diameters 279-282
dental arch 276
facial - 266
facial angles - 285
means 286
nose 268,270
orbits 274
lockanok 189
Lodges—
burial in - 573
construction of. 577-578
manner of using 678
orderly life in 507-508
soldiers' 436
Lodges— Continued. Page
See also Earth lodges; Council lodge;
Sacred lodge.
Lofkas 138
Lomen, Alfred 86
Lomen, Carl 31. 115,116,117,174,181,202
Lomen, J. O 31,86,87
Lomen, Ralph 117
Lomen Brothers -._ 84, 167, 172
L0NG,T. H 48
Long bones. See Bones, long.
Long Hair, Crow chief, mention of 479
Longevity, of the Indians 613
LOUCHEU-X 150
LowDEN, Old 50.51,136
Lower jaw—
angle _ 305
Eskimo 264,358
hjiwrostoses 306
in western Eskimo 242, 249, 252, 299. 324
Yukon Eskimo 161.163
Yukon Indians 153,157,158,300,306
Lukin, I. S 128
Lumbar CURVE, western Eskimo... 249
LuscHAN, F. V 370
LtlTKE, F. P 330.370
Lying, a common custom 482
Lyon, G. F 218.348.370
M.^CCURDY, G. G 174,332,333.351
Mackenzie River, Eskimo 219,229
Magi, Magimiut, Makki 130, 131, 142, 153. 154
Mahlemutes. 89,150,162,217,218,227
crania 254
skulls 233,234 ^
Malakof 127
Malaria.. 129
Mammoth —
remains 117
teeth and bones 48,58
Man, prehistoric, remains of - 41
Mandan —
ceremonial scarification of 490
epidemic among 400
self-tortuie of.. .-- 522
Mandible. Sfc Lower jaw.
Mandibular hyperostoses. See Lower jaw.
Manouveier, L 278,316
Mansfield Lake, village 125
Mantegazza, P 311
Maps —
Billings & Gall's, 1811 176
Ball's, 1877 178
Geological Survey, Geodetic Survey, Bu-
reau of Education 181,196
Eola-ines-Koyukuk 137
Kojnikuk-Lofkas 138
linguistic, U. S. Census, 1920 180
Nelson's, 1900 177,179
Nenana-Tanana 125
of Wales 197,201
Petrol's .- 178
Punuk Islands - 93
Russian, St. Lawrence Island 93
Russian, western Alaska 176
Tanana-Kokrines - 137
Tebenkofs, 1849. 176
Tikhmenief's, 1861... 176
Zagoskin's (2), 1842-1844... 176, 196-197
Maekbam, C. R_ 333,336,336,337,370
644
INDEX
Page
Marriage cusTOMa... 107,504,506,507,510-512,522
See alio Intermarriage.
Makshall _ - 72,
134, 136, 141, 142, 162, 239, 251, 252, 266
Martin, R 235,277,278,305,370
Masks—
copper... 34
Eskimo 173
Eskimo, St. Michael 84
Mason, J. A. 318
ornate stone lamps 34
Master of the Park, dutiesof - 443
Mastication, eflects of, on the Eskimo skull. 359
Mathiassen, T 333, 339, 370
Matthew 206
Matting, Eskimo, in graves _ 77
MCCULLOH, 218
McDonald, W. 3 35
MclLHENT, E. A 254
McLeod, M. F - 65, 139
Measurements, western Eskimo _. 229, 238
Meat —
curing of 581
division of, after hunt 531
Medicine—
practice of 422-426
use of the word 486
Medicine men. See Doctors; Priests.
Medicine sack, described 498
Medicines, of the whites, Indian use of 581
Meigs, J. A 232,332,333,352
Melatouk 198
Melozey Creek, Little, mammoth re-
mains _ 48
Melville Peninsula, crania - 288
Mentauty, western Eskimo 79,
83, 92, 94, 107, 134, 213-228, 240, 250
Mentasta Pass, Indians... 124
Meshik 189
Metal objects, in old sites and burials. 173, 230, 363
Mexico, animal figures on knife bandies 174
Meyer, J 49
Mice Comrades' dance, described 564
Midwife, office of 516
Migration —
Eskimo 365
from Asia, inevitable 93,96
of the Assiniboin 395-396
of tribes 405-406
Yukon.. S3
Mineral springs, occurrence of 409
MiNTO, old 41, 126
Missionaries, discussion of teachings of 468
Missions—
Anvik 56
Point Hope 101
Russian 134
Tanana 42
Yukon - 133
Mitletukeruk 202
Mitliktamk 208
MiTROFANIA. 188
MLXBLOODS 36, 38, 43, 52, 107, 111, 133, 150, 151
among Yukon Esldmo 69
at Anvik 57
at St. Michael 84
Mixture— Page
Eskimoand Negro.. Ill
Indian and Eskimo 69,
156, 161, 162, 163, 250, 269, 268, 365
MOLLISON, Th 371
MONOOLLiN, skulls 261
Mongoloid —
affinities of Eskimo 299
features in western Eskimo 214-227
Moon 100,109
beliefs concerning 417,484-485
time reckoned by 416
Moore, R. D.. 164,210.238,247,254,296
work of, on St. Lawrence Island 30
Morant, G. M.. 370
Morin, 332
Mortality, among children 513
Mortillet, G. DE 175, 332, 333, 349, 371
Morton, S. G... 231.232,237,330,333,371
Mortuary CUSTOMS. Sfc Burials; Graves;
Mourning customs; Widowers; Widows.
Morzhovoi. 189
Mosquitoes 41,
47, 52, 56, 57, 60, 61, 64, 71, 72. 73, 77, 78, 112, 129
Mother-in-law taboo 503-504
Mound, of ell; horns 398
Mounds —
absence of 576
in Alaska 172, 183, 184, 206
near Barrow 166, 169
on Grand Island 71
skeletal remains of 318
Mountain village —
below Paimute 68,81,141
lowest Yukon 73
Mourning customs 656,571,572,675
Mouth —
Indian 243
western Eskimo 213-227,243,249,252
Mover, C. D 102, 114
MozEE, B. B.. .- 31.36
MfjLLER, A., ornate stone lamp 34, 5.5, 136, 173
Mummies, natural —
Barrow 319
Prince WUliam Sound 36
Mumtrak 190
MumtraK crania 257,259,262,263
basiofacial diameters 279-282
dental arch - 275
facial.. 266
facial angles - 285
means 286
nose 268
orbits... 274
skulls of children - 295
Mukder—
Indian beliefs concerning 480
punishment for 452-464
Murdoch, J 169,173,222,224,333,371
exploration in Alaska 29,32
Museum of the American Indian—
fossil ivory objects in 174
ornate stone lamp 34,55
Mushrooms 109
Music-
described 617-618
on the flute 612
INDEX
645
Page
Mutilation, as a sign of mourning 572
Mythology, of the Upixr Missouri In-
dians --- 500-603
Myths, relating of -. 607-608
NadaillaC, M.de.. 333,355,371
Nahliwak.. 198
Names—
change of 51&-517
of canap soldiers, list of 518
of chiefs, list of 618-619
of villages, Yukon -- 133
of warriors, list of.. - 518
of women, list of 619
Naming of children 516-617
Nansen, F 332,333,354
Nanvogaloklak 194
Napaiskak 192
Napakiak 192
Napayochak . 207
Napatochik 208
Nash Harbor 194
National Museum, Canada 166
National Museum, U. S. See V. S. Na-
tional Museum,
Nationalresearchcovncil, work in Alaska- 30
Navahohogan, resemblances of, to dwellings
in Alaska 82
Needle cases, fossil ivory 174
Negro blood, in Eskimo at Barrow HI
Nelson, E. W 165,169,171,
173, 174, 177, 181, 210, 213, 225, 322, 371
exploration in Alaska 30,32
Nelson Island 168
Nelson Island cranla 257,269,262,363
basiofacial diameters.. 279-282
children, skulls of 295,296
dental arch 276
facial 266
facial angles _. 286
means 286
nose 268,270
orbits 274
Nenana—
absence of remains 39
Chief Thomas 38
Indians of 38,124
village _.. 126
Neouthicindltstry, primitive, Bonasila 145
Nephrite. See Jade.
Neuman, D 167, 174
New Hamilton 74
Night, at Arctic Circle 100
"Night DOCTOR" 112
Nilak 199
NOATAK River, Eskimo,. 206,224,226,229,230,361
NOKOTUK 208
Nome 84,88,89, 115, 116, 117, 167, 197, 200, 210
beaches 81
Eskimo 228
remains near 89
remnants of Eskimo in 89
visits of Asiatics 97
See also Cape Nome.
Nook.. 90.196
NOOKVIK 204
Nordenskiold, a. E 332,333,363,371
North Devon Island, crania 292
Page
Northwest coast, cultural affinities with
Bering Sea and Asia 175
Norton Bay 195. 196
Norton Sound 126,171,195
burials 90
crania 150,233,256
Eskimo 213.215,217,218,255
maps 176
old sites 196, 198
stone houses ._ 172
Nose—
breadth 364
Eskimo 358,359,364
pierced 83
in skull *... 264,267,270
vs. development of face 267
western Eskimo, notes on 213-228,
242, 243, 249, 262
Yukon Eskimo 161, 162, 163
Yukon Indians 162, 164, 155, 157, 161
Notes, original 31
Novitna, Novi, River 127, 164
Nudity, attitude toward 660
Nuklit 199
nuklukaiet 132, 136
NULATO.. 63.81, 136,139
graveyard 54
Indians of 130
massacre at 128
old site 133
population 131,132
reached by Russians. 127
Russian post burned 127
skull 151
Western Union Telegraph Co. post 128
NUNAMEKROK 199
NUNAMIUT. 186
NUNATAGMIUT _ 229
NUNAVA 208.209
NuNiVAK Island 117.121,164,170
burials 183
Eskimo 238,251,252,254
skeletal parts 314-317
skulls of children 295,297
NuNrvAK Island crania 256, 257, 269, 262, 263
basiofacial diameters 279-282
dental arch 276
facial 266
facial angles 285
means 286
nose 268,270
orbits 271-274
NUNOCHOK 194
NUSHAGAK 190
Nushaoak B.iY 191
crania _ 286
NUSHAGAK River, Eskimo 227
NuwuK (Point Barrow village), Eskimo of.. 228
Nykhta 176
See also Wales.
Oakland "123
Oaths, use of... 624
Oetteking, B 306,308,326,371
Oglemute, crania 235
Oil 109
Oksik 204
646
INDEX
Old Americans (whitcs)-
calf
chest
ears
face -
feet...
forehead
Page
247
...- 245
244
241
246
240
hands 245
mouth 243
nose 243
strength 249
Old Hamilton^
burials- _ 182
skull at 68, 74, 75
"Old Igloos" 209
Old Minto... _ 41.125
Old people, treatment of 422,443-444,576-577
Old Station. 46,81,82,133
Omens, belief in 497
Oratory, of the Indians 526,596-602
See also Speeches.
Orbits, Eskimo 234-7,264,270-274
and head form.. 277
Yukon Eskimo 162.163
Yukon Indians.. 162, 154, 155, 157
Organs, ijitern;il, Eskimo 366
Orientation, in burial 672.573
Origin, of Eskimo 168, 329. 333-361, .365
America 330-333,356,359
Asia 330-333, 357, 359
Europe... 331-333,356,360
Polar 332,333
Tertiary, paleolithic, indefinite. 333, 351, 367. 360
Ornament.?, use of 690-591
Otis, O. A 160,151,162,232-237,218,258
Ottala 205
PiAPKUK 203
Packard, A. S 371
Paimute, Paimiut 66, 129, 132. 134
Pain, B. H. 306,308
Pain 230,231
Painted boards—
Bonasila, Ghost Creek 63
of burial bo.\es, Auk Point ,. 33,64
Unalaklik 64
Painting, on clothing 421, 586
See also Body painting; Facial paint-
ing.
Paints and dyes, use of 591
Paute. See Dent.al arch.
Paleolithic man of Europe and the Es-
kimo 176,337,347
Panama 176
Pansch, a 371
Parents, attitude toward 485
Pake, buffalo caught in 632-633
Parks, A., Governor of Alaska 31,68
Parry, Capt. 218.230,348
Pastoliak 199
Pastouk 75-78,82, 170, 164, 195. 199, 217. 295
Pastouk crania 257.259,262,203
basiofacial diameters 279-282
" dental arch. 276
facial 266
facial angles 285
means 286
nose 268. 270
Pastouk crania— Continued. Page
orbits 274
skeletal parts 314,317
Pathology—
of bones 109,320,366
of teeth. 309
Pavlof, village 189
Pawik 189
Peabody Museum, Cambridge. 235
Peace treaties, between tribes 404
Peake, Mr. 46,47,49
Pearson, C 310
Penny EivER,siteat. 90
Perignl\c.. 169
Pereyville.. 188
Peschel, O 330,333,335,371
Peterson, us
Petitot, E. F. S... 329,333,371
Petrof, I 124,130,131,132,133,177,181
Photographing, at night 98
Photographs, Indians, Yukon 151
Physical char.^cteristics —
Anchorage 37
Anvik 69
Cordova...*. 36
diflerences in, carried from Asia 175
Eskimo 368,369,364
Kotzebue 99
Kuskokwim.. _ 67
Nenana 39
of British Columbia Indians... 33
Ruby-Galena 62
Tanana _ _ 43
Tanana Indians 124
Wain Wright 107
western Eskimo, living, by former ob-
servers 213-228
Yukon Eskimo 161
Yukon Indians 160, 151. 161
See also Eskimo; Indians.
Physiognomy —
Eskimo. 358,364
western Eskimo, notes... 213-228,240,250
Yukon Eskimo _ 161
Yukon Indians 151
Physiological data, western Eskimo 247-249
Physiology, Eskimo.. 366
Pickering, C 218,330,333,336,371
Picks, ivory, bone 173
PiCTOGRAPHS, reading of.. 412^13
See also Picture writing.
Picture writing —
explanation of 603,606-607
use of 421,603-605
Pigmentation, Eskimo 358,364
PiKMIKTALIK. 199
PiLBACK, L 48
Pilot Station crania 256,257,259,262,263
basiofacial diameters 279-282
dental arch 276
facial 266
facial angles _ 285
means _ 286
nose 268
orbits .- 274
skulls 162
PiM, Captain 341
INDEX
647
Page
PiNART, A 234
PiNGASOOGAROOK.- 207
PiNGISHUGURUK 206
PiNGO 205
PiNOSHURAGIN - 208
Pipes, useof 413
Pit dwelungs, Alaska, Pueblo. 82
PlTMEfilA 207
PlTTARD, E --- 326,371
Pl-\nt9, poisonous _ -_ I2y
Point Barrow 168,177,206,207,209
Eskimo -- 215,218,226,227,230
measurements.. -.- 228
old remains - - 205
skeletal parts -- 313
strange group of Eskimo near. 318
Point Barrow crania 236.
237, 254, 256, 256, 257, 258, 260, 261, 262, 263
basiofacial diameters 279-282
dental arch - -- 276
facial - - 266
facial angles --- 285
nose — 268, 270
orbits- - 274
total, allaverages 286
Point IIope.__ 101,113.207
archeology.... 166.173,363
burials 183
Eskimo 226,230
excavations by Eskimo 167,205
fossil ivory culture 174
old remains 205
population 205
ridges of ruins 172.205
Point IIopECEANIA... 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263
basiofacial diameters 279-282
dental arch. 276
facial 266
facial angles 285
means. 286
nose. 268, 270
orbits... 274
skeletal parts. 314-317
Point Spencer 197
Points, spear and arrow, ivory 46,
60, 63, 67, 88, 144. 146. 170. 173
Poushed stone implements 135. 144, 148
Ponceau, Du 340
POPOKAK 192
Population—
affected by smallpox 465
causes of reduction in.. -.. 625
effect on, of intoxicating drinks - 465
Eskimo 181
increase of 405
of the Assiniboin 396-397
Yukon... 130-132.133
Porcupine qctlls, useof 690,591
Port Clarence 89,117,121
old sites 197
skeletal parts 313
Port Clarence crania 257,259,260,262,263
basiofacial diameters 279-282
dental arch .- 276
facial... .- 266
facial angles 285
means 286
Port Clarence crania— Continued. Page
nose 268,270
orbits 274
skulls 232,233,236,237
Port Heiden 189
Port Moller 189
Port Safety 196
Portage —
Yukon-Kotzebue Sound 127
Yukon-Kuskokwim 127
Post, Father 86
poil.itch 130, 133
Tanana 42,44
Pottery —
.\nvik 58
Barrow, near 319
Bonasila 68,60,142,144,145,146,147
Dogfish Village 69
in Eskimo region 173
Little Diomede 95
Xunivak Island 121
of the Arikara 413
Paimute, below 67
Pastolik 78
Russian Mission 147
Yukon 46,82,135,145,147
Prairie fires, effect of.. 408-409
Prayers—
object of 412
of a warrior. 483-484
to ghosts 484
Presents. Sfe Gifts.
Pribilof Islands 122,238,361
Prichard, J. C 330.333,340,371
Priests—
character of 492
name for 486
office of... 492-493
power of, in council 450-451
See also Doctors; Divining man.
Primogeniture, among Assiniboin 478-479
Prince of Wales Island, copper **shield'*. 35
Prince Rupert Bay, Indians of 33
Prince William Sound 181,213
crania 233,286
old sites 184
skeletal remains 36
Prisoners. See Captives.
Problems, of archeology, Bering Sea and
Asia 174,175
Profanity, lack of, among Indians 482
Prognathism—
Eskimo... 282
Yukon Indian. 152
Property —
loss of, as result of crime 480
of the deceased, disposal of 671
placed with the dead 671
Property rights, discussion of 474-476
Prospects, of finding ancient remains, Yukon 140
" Protouthic" industry, Bonasila 60, 82, 144
Provision Stealers' dance, described 564
Pbuner-Bey, 331
Public crier, duties of 442
Pueblo—
pit-houses 82
stone ax 147
648
INDEX
Page
PCGUTIUAK 212
PnLSE, western Eskimo. 247, 248, 249, 250
Punishment—
for violations of law 445
of crime 479-483
See aUo Eetauation.
PUNUK Islands 93,101,123,210
mapped. __ 176
remains __ 172
PuoTiN Bat, crania 286
Putnam, F. W 228
Quartz, QUARTZiTE, implements 173
Quartz Creek, site at _ 90
Quatrefages, a. de 175,
234, 237, 330, 332, 333, 338, 348, 354, 371
Quills, porcupine, use of _ 590. 591
Race, Eskimo —
purity.- _ 365
unity or plurality 366
yellow-brown 357
Races, bettingon 566
Radio 107
Radius 156, 160, 164, 165
western Eskimo 314-317
Rae, J 332,333.337,338,361,371
Rampart 132
Rank, insignia of 592-593
Rape, punishment for 482
Rasmdssen, K 166,205
Rattle, made of hoofs 619
Rattlesnake, cure for bite of 426-426
RaTZEL, F 333,339,371
Rau, C 173
work on Alaska 32
Rat, J 233
Rat, P.H 169,173,222.228,230,331,333,343
Ratmond, O. W 128
Reche, O 371
Red Root Indians, a branch of the Canoe
Indians 430-431
Redeposition of human remains on the
Yukon 68
Refuse heaps 172, 183
Reindeer Ill
camps, Norton Sound... 80
camps. Point Hope 101
meat 80,91,92,116
Relations, Governmental, with Indians,
discussion of 470-474
Reugion —
discussion of attempted change in 468-469
of the ITpper Missouri Indians 481-483.
486-493, 594
See also Crime.
Remains —
Little Diomede 95
Yukon 81,140
Yukon, reassortment of 68
Replogle, C. S 167
Respiration, western Eskimo 248,249
RESUME of survey of Yukon — 81
Retauation, among the Assiniboin 452-455
Retreat, in warfare, attitude toward 860
Retzius, A 371
Retzius, G. 372
Retzius, S 372
Page
Revenge, justification of. 481
See also Crime; Retaliation.
Revenue cutters, and science 93
Ribs 159
Rice, wild, use of 684
Richardson. A 61
Richardson, J 128,
150, 215, 218, 219, 329, 330. 333. 352, 372
Richardson, W. P 128
Richardson Trail... 36
Rickets 362
RrooES, ofruins 172, 183
Rink, H 329.331,333,
337. 339, 340, 341, 342, 344. 345, 346, 354, 372
Ritchie, S. O 313
River of the Mountain Men 124
RrvET, P 284
Robbery, among the Indians 476
See also Theft.
ROLLET 316
RoMiG, J. A 31,36,37
Ross, Captain 31.86.117
Ross, J.... 348
RossE, I. C 234
Ruby. 45,48,59,81,149
axes.,. 135
RtHNS—
features of 172,173
richness of, archeologically 173
Running, speed in 529
Russian—
beads.... 136
early observations in America 29
explorations, Yukon and affluents. 123, 127, 128
influence 46.49,55,58,61,63,116
influence at Bonasila 142
influence on burials 138
maps... .- 93
massacre at Nulato 128
snulTboxes 136
traders 123.127
Russian Mission 67,70,71,81,170
archeology 134
established 127
pottery... 147
Russians, discoveries by-
Norton Sound 126,127
Tanana. 123
Yukon 127, 128
Rtdeem, E. 31
Sacred lodge—
ceremony of 488-489
construction of 488
Sacrifice —
amputation of fingers as 427-428
made by hunters 535
to the river 536
to Wakonda. 489
St. Lawrence Island 121
age census of burials 322
anthropometric data 238,251,252
anthropometry 30
archeology 117, 173, 174
collections 30
discovery of 209
early map of 93
INDEX
649
St. Lawrence Island— Continued. Page
Eskimo... - 226,250
Esliimo, pliysiologicaJ data 247
exploration of. 177
famine 171
fossil ivory 88, 101, 174
HrdMka's trip to 30
"jade" adzes — - 88
maps of 176,181
population 209
sites, dead villages 209, 210
skeletal parts 314-317
skulls - 231,235
skulls of children 296-297
visit to - ---- 86,91
St. Lawkence Island crania .- 254,
266, 257, 259, 261, 262, 263
basiofacial diameters _ 280-282
compared with Greenland.. ..- 298
dental arch 276, 277
facial 266
facial angles 286
means 286
nose. 268,270
orbits - 271,274
St. Lawrence Islanders 162.164,167
civihzation of 92
homogeneous 358
not mi.\ed with Indian 365
St. IWiCHAEL Island 116.177,190,195,199
archeology 165
discovery of - 126,127
Eskimo 228
old sites 170
ship "bone-yard" at 129
skulls 233,234,237,254
town 84,85
trade station of the Aziags 89
St. Michael Isl.\nd crania... 257. 259, 260, 262, 263
basiofacial diameters _. 279-282
dental arch- _ 276
facial -.- --- 266
facial angles 285
means .-_ -._ 286
nose 268,270
orbits.... 274
Sakamna 208
Salchakat 125
Salmon.. 55,57,116
strips 70, 71, 116
Salt Lake 86,117,118,202
crania 260
old sites about 197
San Francisco, collections at, from Alaska.. 167
Sapilla 92
Sauer, M 372
Savonga 92,121,173,210,212
Saws, stone 146
Scaffold burials —
description of 572
disintegration of 574
reasons for 571
Scalp dance, description of 557-558
Scalp SONG, singing of 555,556,557-558
Scalping, practice of 624
Scalping enife, described 555
Scalps, rejoicing over 555-556
88253°— H. Doc. 90, 71-1 42
Page
SCAMMON Bat 193, 198
Scarification, practice of... 490,564
Scenery 66,67,72.73
Yukon 46, 48, 50, 51, 52, 63, 58, 126, 129
SCHENK, A 372
Schlaginhaufen, O 372
Schoolcraft, Henry R., circular by 378
.Schools—
Government, Yukon 134
Indian, need of 466-470
schrenck, l. von 372
Schultz-Lorentzen 372
schwalbe, g 372
SCHWATKA, F 128,150
SCBWERZ, Fr 372
Scouts, of war party, duties of 649
SCRAPERS 83, 134, 144, 146, 173
Scurvy 321
Seals 104. 105, 106, 109, 110, 122
Seasickness 85,91,98,104,115,116,122
Seasons, recognition of 415
Seattle, collections in, from Alaska.. 167
Sedaru 208
SEEMANN, B 215.218,219.372
Selawik River, Eskimo 203.224,361
Self-torture, to propitiate Wakonda.. 490
Sergi, G 236,372
Seward, Indian baskets at 36
Seward Peninsula.. 115
archeology.. 88,363
burials 90
crania 260.364
Eskimo 217.256.367.361
fossil ivory culture 174
mapped 176
old sites 90.196,202,203
skeletal parts 314-317,323,327,328
stone dwellings... 172
Sex, differences in cranial module and ca-
pacity 268
Sfaganuk 193
Shageluk, archeology 136
Shaktolik 196,199
old site near 171
Shells—
fossil.. 109
highly valued 690-691
Shield —
copper... — 35
rawhide, described 653
SmNERARA.. __ 109
Shishmaref 97,116,202
ridges of ruins 172
Shishmaref crania 257,260,262,263
basiofacial diameters 279-282
dental arch 276
facial 266
facial angles 285
means 286
nose 268,270
orbits 274
Siberia. See Asia.
Sickness-
at Anvik 56
treatment of.. 423-424
650
INDEX
Sickness— Oontinued. Page
See alio Diseases; Epidemics; Small-
pox.
SlDARU 169
Sight, aeuteness in sense of- 527-528
Silas, Mrs. Monica _ 48
Silver, use of .591
Silver W.<ve, The _. 84,85,86
SiMEL, Max__ _._ 65
SIMP.SON, J. 216,218,219,220,223,224
Simpson, E., copper mask and shield 3, 435
Sinaru _ _._ 208
Singing abiuty, Eskimo _ 107
SlNIAK-_ _ 200
Sinrazat. .__ 202
SiNUK 200
Sioux bands, list of 435
Sioux Indians, dress of 587
Sites —
along right bank 50
Burchell's ___ 46
buried _ 172, 173
destruction of 136
Diomedes 95,96
Eskimo, Lower Yukon 67, 72
Kevalina.-- _ 100
Kotzebue... 99
Lower Yukon 67. 71, 170
near Barrow 169
Point Hope _ 102
St. Lawrence Island 93
Seward Peninsula 90
Shishmaref 97
Tanana _,_ __ 43
Tanana River 125
variety 172
Wainwright 105
Wales 93
western Eskimo region 168,176,238
Yukon, ancient :._. 58
Yukon, location..- 137
SiUK 203
Skeletal parts —
destruction of._ _._ 363
measurements, Yukon Indians, Eskimo,. 156
"mounds" near Barrow 321,327,328
other Indians _ ___ 315
Seward Peninsula and northwestern Es-
kimo.. 327
western Eskimo 313,363,364
Yukon Eskimo 327
Yukon Indians 315
Skeletal remains —
Barrow _ 110, 166
below Barrow 109
Bering Sea and Arctic. 254
Bonasila. 60, 61, 83, 142, 144, 156. 160
Cape Nome 90,197
cane in collection of 65
Chiukak 196
destruction 65
Eskimo attitude toward 70,
76, 78,97, 103, 109, 111, 113, 114. 184
Qhost Creek 63,64
Oolovnin Bay 115
Oreyling River 58
Kotlik 75
Eotzebue 99. 100, 114
Skeletal remains— Continued. Page
Little Diomede 95
P;istohk 76-78
Point Hope... 102,113,114,205
Russian Mission 70
St. Lawrence Island 210
Salt Lake 118
Shishmaref 97
Wainwright (below) 112
Wales 94
Washington 123
Yukon. 151
Skeleton of a white man 72
Skin color —
Eskimo 364
Eskimo, Indian, Yukon 151, 161
western Eskimo.. 213-228
Skin dressing, described 640-541
Skins—
caribou, as body covers in burials 77
judging of. 639
preparation of 83
used for clothing 584
Skull—
deformation 321
Eskimo, changes in, differentiation of 364
facial 264-266
height 264-266
shape, crania 260
size, western Eskimo _ 2'>5, 258
size, western Eskimo, sex differences 258
western Eskimo, data 254
Skulls-
animal 48
Bonasila. 157, 158
Eskimo. 162,163
Eskimoid 152
Indian, at Ruby 48
mammoth. ___ _ 48
Mountain Village 68
Nulato 151,152
occasional appearance of, at St. Michael. 84
Old Hamilton 68
Russian Mission 70
Yukon 160. 162,155
Sky, beliefs concerning 415
Slate 145, 146, 173
used for implements 99
Sledding—
in summer 113
on sands 103
Sledge Island 197.200
crania 260,288,292,324
dead villages 89
Slough, of the 32 Kashims 70-72
Sloughs 48
Yukon 126,129
Smallpox—
difBculty of curing 428
epidemics of.. 396,399-400
mention of-. 130,171
Smith, Lynn, ornate stone lamp 34
Smith, N. W 31.36,38
Smith Sound crania.. 257, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263. 364
basiofacial diameters 280-282
dental arch. 276
Eskimo 230
facial 266
INDEX
651
Smith Sound ckaota— Continued. Page
facial angles 2S5
lower jaw 308,310
means 286
nose - - - 268,270
orbits — 274
skulls of children 297
Smith Sound Eskimo 230,357,359
long bones - 317
Smithsonian Institution, explorations
under, in Alaska 29,30
Smoking, custom of - 524
Snakes.- _.- -- - 129
Snow, hunting in - 535
Snuffboxes- 136
Soldiers—
duties of 442,448
organization of - - 436
Soldiers' dance, described 562
SOLLAS, W.J - -- 332,333,360.372
Sommer, W -- 372
Songs —
accompanying ceremonies 496
list of..--- --- -- -- 618-619
lullabies- 620
Tanana 43
use of 617
SoN-ix-uw, status of- - 611
SoNORA Creek, site at 90
Sorcery, fear inspired by 528
South Island Eskimo 230
Southampton Island crania. 257, 260, 262, 263. 3.57
basiofacial diameters.. 280-282
dental arch - - 276
facial - - 266
facial angles - 285
means 286
nose-.- -.- - -- 268,270
orbits -.. 274
skulls of children..- - 297
Speaking, in public 526
Spearheads—
ivory - _ __ 170
slate - 99
See also Ivory; Fossil ivory.
Spear points, ivory -- 46,60,63,67,88
See also Points.
Speeches—
at scalp dance 558
made by Assiniboin chief... - 438-439
of Crazy Bear 597-599
of Le Chef du Tonnerre 600-602
See also Oratory; Speaking.
Spengel, J. W 372
Spheno-temporalregion, full, in Eskimo. 241,358
Spruce Island. 185
Stars, knowledge concerning 417
Stature - 265
Eskimo 315,316,317,326,359,364
Indians, Eskimo, Yukon -. 151,
159, 161, 162, 164, 229
western Eskimo- - - 213-228. 229, 230, 238, 249, 251
Steaung. See Theft.
Steatopygt - 249
Stebbins- 195, 199
StEENSBY, H. p.. 230,231,256,331,332,333,373
Steenstrup, K. J. V 373
StefaNSSON, V. 166,174,264,323
Page
Steinhauser, C 54
Steller, G. W 330,333
Steriutv, in Eskimo 107
Stewart, T. D 164,238,247,254,295,296
Stockman, A. J 53,54
Stoicism of the Indian _ 526
Stone—
axes, Eskimo 67
culture, old 144
culture, implements, industry, Yukon..- 64,
68, 69, 82
industry, primitive, Bonasila 60
lamps, ornate.-- 34, 56, 136, 173
Stone, A. J-- 160,229,230,231
Stone age, Yukon - 58
Stone houses or dwelungs —
Diomedes 172
Little Diomcde 183
Norton Sound and Bay 182
Seward Peninsula-.. 172,183
Stone implements-
Bonasila.. 142, 144
Eskimo region 173
Yukon- - 68,134
Stone Indians, an Assiniboin band... 430
Stones, polishing, sharpening 135
Stony Point --- -- 116
Storage houses - 182
Storms 75, 76, 86
destruction by. of remains..- 3C.3
Stormy weather 91,
101, 104, 107, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 121, 122
Story-telling. See Myths.
Strauss, L- 122
Strength, Indians —
Assiniboin 529
Eskimo, Yukon..-- 151, 164
western Eskimo - 213-227,249
Stuart Island 195
suckemos, - 329
Sugar, method of obtaining 584
Suicide, among Indians - - 522
Summary —
Eskimo 361
of work on Yukon 81
Sun—
beliefs concerning- 415
worship of - — 496
Sundevai.l, F... - .—— 373
Sunset, curious - -- 116
Supracondyloid process 158
Survey—
anthropological, Alaska -_ 30
anthropological and archeological -- 168
Sutherland, Dan... 115
Sverdrup, H. N 167, 174
Sweat house, use of 425
See aUo Vapor baths.
SWESTMANN, E - 36
Symbols, animal, use of 412
Syphilis—
among western Eskimo 362
skulls showing 321
Taboos, concerning women 524
Tacbikuga - 194
Taqtuhniiy of the Indlan 626
652
INDEX
Page
Tanana 133,134,135,137,148,149,1,50
dwellings 82
mission at 42
potlatch at. 38,42
remains 81
the town 42
Tanana Indians _ 42,83
character of 124
numbers... 124, 125
physically 124
Tanana River—
birch bark dishes 37
discovery... .- 123
Indians 40, 130, 133
natives 124
scenery and features of.. 40,41
scientific exploration 124
villages 125
Tanunuk, Tanunak 1»4, 251, 262
Tapkhaig... 202
Tapkhalik 199
Tarf.netzKT, a 236,237,333,355,373
Tattooing —
a marlc of dignity 449
custom of 522,592
Teachers, Alaska, collections by 106, 173,303
Tebenkof, M. D 127,209
Teeth, Esldmo 213-228,264-206,309,359
decay 92
mutUation 83
Teller. .-86, 93, 115, 117, 118, 119, 202
Temperature, western Eskimo 248, 249
Temporal muscles, in Eskimo 265
Temporal region, full, in Eskimo... 241
Tenan-Khotana.. 130
Tenankutchin 124, 130
Tents _ 98, 101, 182
Territory, rights to 476-478
TesTUT, L 332,333,349,350,373
Tetlen 125
Thalbitzer, W .--- 250,330,333,339,373
The Oauche, Assiniboin chief, account of... 400
Theft^-
among the Indians... 476,481-482
punishment for. 482
Thiele, C 31
Thomas, C 173
Thomas, Chief, at Nenana.. - 38
Thomson, Arthvr — 269
Thornton, Dr., Wales 94
Thunderstorms 59
Tibia... 156, 159, 160, 164, 165
western Eskimo 314-317
TiGARA 207
See also Point Hope.
Tikhhenief, I 177
TIKIZAT 204
Time, reckoning of 415-416
TiNNE, Tinneh 130, 133
pottery.. 147
TuNOiT Indians, copper ihask of 34
Tobacco, ceremonial use of 447,496
Tocher - 231
TOGIAK 162, 190, 238, 261, 2.52
TOGlAK CRANIA 266, 257, 259, 262, 263
basiofacial diameters 279-282
dental arch 276
facial ,266
TOGIAK CRANIA— Continued. Paga
facial angles 285
means 286
nose 268,270
orbits 274
skulls of children 295
TOKLAT River. 125
TOKLIK 72
TOLAGEAK 207,208
TOLDT, C, JR 373
TOLOVANA 41, 126
Tomahawk, manner of using 555
Tooth wear, Eskimo 265,309
TOPINARD, P.. 232,305,316,330,333
Torture of enemies 491-492,561
See also Self-torture.
TowNSEND, C. r.... 68
Toys, use of, to teach children 52
Trade —
aboriginal, about Seward Peninsula 89
Eskimo, in reUcs 173
in fossil ivory 87,88,89,91,93
in other relics 102,103
of the upper Missouri 457-466
profits of- 460
with tlie Assiniboin 397-398
with Yukon .., 89
Traders —
Alaska, collections by 166 173
demands upon 460
general character of 457,621
risks taken by .._ 459
Russian. 123, 127
Trading, method of .- 458,459
Trading points, on the Missouri — 407
Traditions^
Assiniboin.. 402-403
relating of 521
Transmission, cultural, Yukon 83
Transportation, of collections 62
Travel—
guidance in 526-527
traces left by 527
Treaties, with the Assiniboin 398
Trebitsch, R 573
Tribal organization, Assiniboin 430-431
Tribes-
divisions of 404
list of, described by Denig... 378
migrations of 405-406
separation of 405
Tuberculosis, in western Eskimo 362
Tucker, F 31
Tucker's, Lower Yukon 68
Tulukhtulig 20O
Tundra—
assimilation of skeletal remains by 77,
79.111,118,136,184,195
character 75, 112
Turner, L. M 373
Turner, W 313
Tussoc River 118
Twelve-mile Point, below Paimute .- 67
Twins, occurrence of 513
Tykiak 176
Tylor, E. B 373
Type, physical, Yukon Indian S3
See o(so Indians.
INDEX
653
Page
Uauk.- 190
Ugak Bat 186
Uganik 186
ITgashik 189
Uglaamie, native name for Barrow 169, 228
See also Barrow.
Ukak .- 194
Ukvikhtulig - 200
Ulna.... 158
Umalik 207
Umiak-pak 91
See also Boats.
Unakak 194
Unakhtuglig 199
Unalakleet 199
Unalaklik.. 195
painted burial boxes - 64
Unalaska—
crania... 286. 290
trip to 31, 122
Unaleets, Unaligmiut 217
Unangashik _ 189
Ungava Bay, crania .- 288
Univebsitt Museum, Philadelphia 166,
206, 254, 255, 318
ornate stone lamp 34,55
work in Alaska.. 32
U. S. National Museum—
Eskimo crania 237,238,254
fossil ivory culture - 174
Utkxavik 319
Utak 186
Vaccination, among the Assiniboin 428
Valdez - 36
Van Buskikk, Commodore. 122
Van Valin, W. B.... 166,206,254,318
work in .\laska 32
Vapor baths, effect of _ 429
See aUo S^teat house.
Vaseuef, M. N 126, 127
Vegetal food, of Upper Missouri Indians.. 583
Venereal diseases, western Eskimo. 362
Veniaminof, I... 177
Veekinik, a - 48
Vermin, method of disposing of 584
Vertebrae 159
Vessels, CLAY, for cooking 581
Victoria, The 86
Villages —
changes __ 136
"dead" 183
Eskimo, Lower Yukon... 67,129,132,361
Indian, Tanana 124, 125, 126
inland 182
location of old _. 136
native, on the Yukon, instabihty.. _ 59
Nome, west of __ _ 89
old sites 134
sites of, distinguishable 183
size 182
siunmer camps 182
superposition.. _ — 183
western Eskimo 168, 176, 184
Yukon. 130-132,134
VmcHow, R 301,
306, 307, 309, 311, 326, 330, 331. 333, 346, 373
Page
Virginity—
precautious to insure 590
violation of, of captives 553
Vocabularies, recorded by Denig 382-383
Wab-he' Muzza, Assiniboin chief 395
Wainweight.... 105, 112,208
Waklaeok 198
WakoSda—
the Creator. _ 414
the supernatural power 486, 487^88
Walakpa 208
Wales.. 176,197,201,202
archeology. 32,88,93,166,173,197
Eskimo 227
fossil ivory culture 174
trade aboriginal with Kotzebue 89
trip to.... 30,93, 117, 121
Wales CRANIA 257,260,262,263
dental arch. — _ 276
facial 266
nose 268,270
orbits. 271-274
Walk, western Eskimo 249
Walker, E. P 172, 181, 184 et seq.
Walker, Jim... 31,64
Walrus 104, 106
ivory, worked by Eskimo 84, 117, 121
War—
a means of advancement -. 525
made to steal horses... 544
made to take scalps 544, 548-551
object of '. 544
Wars, Eskimo-Indian, etc.. 86, 117, 118, 170, 171, 358
War chiefs, power of 449-450
War club, stone, use of , 555
War EXPLOITS, recounting of 559-560
War leader, responsibility of 443
War party—
attack by, described 549-.550
insubordination in - 552
organization of 544-545
return of .- 547-548
tactics of 545-547
War WHOOP, use of 551
Warfare-
attitude toward retreat in 560
causes of 470
causes of failure in 548
customs of 544-554
means of preventing 470-471
precautions taken in 549
Warrior, burial of 570-571
Warriors —
Assiniboin, list of 401-402
dressof 553-554,586,589
equipment of 548
insignia of 593
tattooing of «. 692
Waruschkin, A 373
Watering, the boat.. - - il5
Watson, II. O 31
Weapons, described 555
WEAR,ofteeth. See Teeth.
Wedges, stone 146
Weenie... .- 108, 119, 120
654
INDEX
Page
Wegker, Mr 97
Weight, in western Eskimo 213-227
Welcker, H. ._ 306, 307, 311, 373
Western Union Telegraph Co 128
Wettstein, E _ 373
Wewuk 207
Whale Island. _. 84,166,170,195,199
Whalebone 173
ribs, JEiws, used in house construction..- 168, 182
Whip dance, briefly described 564
Whiskey Creek.. 50
Whistles, use of, in hunting 537
White Crane dance, described 563
Whites—
comparative data on... 240,
241, 243, 244, 246, 246, 247, 249
intermarriage and mixture with Eslcimo.. 102,
106. Ill, 151, 362
mLxture with Indians, Yukon _ 151
Whtmper, F.. 128. 160, 333, 336, 373
Wickersham,J 31
Widowers, remarriage of 511
Widows —
remarriage of 511
suicide among 622
Wild rice, use of 584
WiLKINS, Capt 38
Wiluams, F. P 31,76.80,116
Wilson, D 231, 232, 237, 331, 332, 333, 335, 342, 373
Wilson, T... 373
Wireless, at Barrow 108
WISSLER, C...'. 166, 331, 333, 347
WisTAR Institute, Philadelphia.. 265, 318, 320
Witchcraft, belief in. 493-494
Wolff. T 373
Wolves, trapping of 638-539
"Woman Chief," account of 433—134
Women—
burial of. 573
clothing of 587
customsregarding. 624
Indian and Eskimo, Yukon 161
list of names of _ 619
marriageable age of __ 511
status of 433,451,455
treatment of, as captives 551, 552, 563
work of.. 444,605
Women's dance, briefly described 664
Women's game, description of 569-570
Wood —
hewn 183
in burials, decay 184
preservation, in old houses 183
tools, etc 173
Page
Woolen goods, introduction of 464-465
WooLET, Cape, site at.. 90
Wosnesenski 189
WotJNDS, recovery from 429-430
Wrangell, F. p.. 127, 130, 150,330,333,334
WtmaN, J 160, 151, 162, 162, 217, 232, 233, 234. 237
Yakutat, copper ma^k 34
York Mountains,. 93
Yukon —
ancient remains _ 81, 140
anthropology of _ 150
archeology. 32,84, 129, 134, 165
at and below Tanana 42,45
changes in 81
characteristics, scenery 126, 129
explorations of 123-129
first white settlement on. 127
gold rush and decline. 128, 129
history. ___ 126,128
lower, old villages and sites 169,195
name 127
old settlements 133
ornate stone lamp 34
population 130
role in peopling of Alaska 81
survey, geodetic 129
surveyor 73
villages and camps 130
villages and sites enumerated 136
Yukon Delta, Big Lake Eskuno 226
basiofacial diameters 279-282
crania 2.54,257,259,262,263
dental arch 276
facial 266
facial angles 285
means 286
nose 268, 270
orbits 274
Yukon Eskimo 129,132,361
crania. 150, 161, 226, 232, 239, 256, 257, 259
Yukon Indian—
antiquity. 83
census... 132, 133
crania 150, 151-165
type 83
variety and names 129
Yukon Territory, observations in 123
yukonhkhotana 130
Yunnaka-Khotana 130,131
YURTS, Asiatic, aflinities of, to summer
houses ua Alaska 182
Zagosein, L. a... 67,
89, 127, 128, 130, 131, 132, 150, 176, 181, 196,202
Zelent, S. 1 127
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